


Mi 



A GRAMMAR 



OF THE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 



WITH AN 



ANALYSIS OF THE SENTENCE. 



BY 

JOHN S. HART, LL. D., 

II 

LATE PROFESSOR OF RHETORIC AND OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITER- 
ATURE IN THE COLLEGE OF NEW JERSEY. 



REVISED EDITION, 

By Edward Gideon, A. M., Supervising Principal of George G. Meade 

School, Philadelphia. 




PHILADELPHIA: 

Eldredge & Brother, 

No. 17 North Seventh Street. 

1900. 



A SERIES OF TEXT-BOOKS 

ON 

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

By JOHN S. HART, LL.D. 

Language-Lessons for Beginners. U 4* 

An Elementary English Grammar. 
English Grammar and Analysis. 
First Lessons in Composition. 
Composition and Rhetoric. 



W 



••o$o« 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874, by 
ELDREDGE & BROTHER, 
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
..o^o* *- 



Revised Edition. Copyright, 1899. 



87063 



Library of Congress 

Two Copies Received 
DEC 11 1900 

uo<&A?..<eJ.f. 

SECOND COPV 

Oetivtred to 
ORDER DIVISION 
JAN 36 1901 



Z&V". G-Ol; 



ELECTROTYPED BY 
WESTCOTT & THOMSON, PHILAQA. 



PRESS OF 
FERGUSON BROS. & CO., PHILADA. 




Preface to the Revised Edition. 



£«K< 



nrjST the present edition, the publishers have deemed it 
advisable, in deference to the prevailing method of teach- 
ing language, to make certain changes in the arrangement 
of the book. 

Without altering the text in any appreciable degree, they 
have removed many of the notes scattered through the book. 
These notes, purely explanatory, while of great value to the 
teacher, are of little value to the learner. 

They have deemed it advisable ^to accustom the pupil to 
the phraseology of Analysis at an early stage of the study of 
Grammar, and accordingly examples bearing upon that sub- 
ject have been introduced where necessary. It is believed 
that the changes that have been made will enhance the value 
of a book which for many years has been an object of intelli- 
gent affection to many teachers. 

iii 



Preface to the Original Edition 



-OO^Ofr 



rpHE author, having in great measure rewritten his English 
"*" Grammar, presents it once more to the consideration of the 
teachers of the country. The work, as now offered, is the result of 
long experience in the class-room, and of no little reading and study. 
The English language and its literature have been for many years 
the main subjects of the author's inquiry, and he has endeavored in 
this volume to give the results of his observations in the form which 
his experience as a teacher has convinced him to be the best adapted 
to the wants of the learner. 

The points aimed at have been twofold : 

First, to give some knowledge of grammar in general. This is the 
more necessary, as most of those who study English grammar study 
no other language, and have no other means of studying the laws of 
language as a means of expressing thought. 

Secondly, to set forth the forms and laws peculiar to the English 
language. The English has indeed been called, somewhat irrever- 
ently, " the grammarless tongue." Its inflections, it must be confessed, 
are meagre, as compared with those of the Latin and Greek. Such is 
the condition of almost every modern tongue. Yet our English has 
its idioms, as every foreigner learns to his cost, and is not entirely 
without its inflections. An accurate knowledge of these idioms and 
inflections is of incalculable value to every one who would be at home 
in the use of the language. 

There is an opinion widely prevalent among the teachers of classical 



vi PREFACE, 

schools, that boys fitting for college have no need to study English 
grammar. From that opinion the author begs leave respectfully, but 
most earnestly, to dissent. If he mistakes not, a growing majority of 
those who are called upon to examine candidates for admission to 
college will bear him out in his position. The study of Latin and 
Greek gives indeed a knowledge of the grammar of those languages, 
and some knowledge of grammar in general, but it does not give a 
knowledge of English grammar. Does Latin grammar teach a boy 
our common rules for Spelling, which are a guide to the correct 
writing of not less than twenty thousand English words ? Does it 
teach him the origin, form, and uses of the English Possessive? 
Does it, to take one instance out of hundreds that might be named, 
teach him the syntax of the phrase " For David thy father's sake " ? 
Does it teach him the rules for the formation of the English Plural ? 
— the peculiarities of the Past Participle Active ? Does it not lead 
him into grave mistakes in regard to the forms and uses of the Eng- 
lish verb ? 

A word as to the method pursued. The author has endeavored to 
bear in mind that he was writing, not a treatise for the learned, but 
a text-book for learners. For such a book, — 

The first and most imperative demand is clearness, — clearness 
of arrangement, and clearness of expression. 

Next and hardly less imperative is the demand that the more and 
the less important should be carefully discriminated, and the differ- 
ence plainly set forth to the eye. 

A third imperative demand is that the rules, definitions, and other 
matter to be committed to memory, should be expressed with the 
utmost possible conciseness. 

A fourth requisite is that every rule and definition should be sup- 
ported and illustrated by a goodly array of apt practical examples. 
These are as necessary in teaching grammar as sums are in teaching 
arithmetic. 

How far these things have been secured is for the reader to judge. 

J. S. H. 




PAGE 

Preface m . iii 

Introduction 11 



Part I. 

«K)^CK> 

« 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Letters generally 12 

Vowels 13 

Consonants 14 

Words and Syllables ' 15 

Rules for Spelling 16 



Part II. 



-«HD>@<00- 



ETYMOLOGY. 
Classification of Words 22 

I. Articles. 

Classification of Articles 24 

vii 



Vin CONTENTS. 

II. Nouns. 

PAGE 

Classification of Nouns 26 

Attributes of Nouns 27 

1. Gender 27 

2. Number 30 

3. Person 36 

4. Case 36 

III. Adjectives. 

True Character of Adjectives 41 

Comparison of Adjectives 42 

IV. Pronouns. 

True Character of Pronouns 46 

1. Personal Pronouns 46 

2. Relative Pronouns 49 

3. Adjective Pronouns 53 

V. Verbs. 

Definition of the Verb 56 

I. Attributes of Verbs 56 

1. Voice 56 

2. Mood 57 

3. Tense 59 

4. Participles 62 

5. Number and Person 63 

II. Classes of Verbs 63 

1. Transitive and Intransitive 63 

2. Regular and Irregular 65 

3. Defective 70 

4. Auxiliary 70 

III. Conjugation of Verbs 71 

The Verb To Be 72 

The Verb To Love . 76 



VI. Adverbs. 

Comparison of Adverbs 86 

Classes of Adverbs 86 



VII. Conjunctions. 

Character and Uses of Conjunctions 88 

VIII. Prepositions. 

Character and Uses of Prepositions 91 



CONTENTS. ix 

IX. Interjections. 

PAGE 

Definition and Use of Interjections 93 

Words used as Different Parts of Speech 93 

Derivation of Words. 

1. Prefixes of Saxon Origin 96 

2. Prefixes of Latin Origin 96 

3. Prefixes of Greek Origin 98 

4. Affixes 99 



Part III. 



>XKo<^ 



SENTENCES. 

I. Syntax. 

Order of the Rules in Syntax 102 

1. The Subject 104 

2. The Verb 108 

3. The Objective Case and the Verb ". 115 

4. The Objective Case and the Preposition 119 

5. The Possessive Case 124 

6. Apposition 128 

7. Case after the Verb To Be 131 

8. The Pronoun 133 

9. The Article 140 

10. The Adjective 143 

11. The Adjective Pronoun 147 

12. The Participle 150 

13. The Adverb . 154 

14. The Infinitive Mood 157 

15. The Conjunction 160 

16. The Interjection 164 

II. Analysis. 

I. Parts of a Sentence 164 

I. The Subject 165 

1. Simple Subjects 166 

2. Complex Subjects 166 

3. Compound Subjects 171 

II. The Predicate 172 

1. Simple Predicates 172 

2. Complex Predicates 172 

3. Compound Predicates 176 



X CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

II. Kinds of Sentences 177 

I. Simple Sentences 178 

II. Complex Sentences 178 

III. Compound Sentences 179 

III. Explanation of Terms 179 

I. Phrases 180 

II. Clauses 180 

III. Members 181 

General Exercises in Analysis 182 

Miscellaneous Exercises 184 



Part IV. 



-oo^o«- 



PROSODY. 

I. Punctuation. 

I. Comma 195 

II. Semicolon 204 

III. Colon 207 

IV. Period 209 

V. Interrogation Point 212 

VI. Exclamation Point 214 

VII. Dash 216 

VIII. Parenthesis 220 

IX. Brackets 222 

X. Quotation 224 

XI. Capitals 227 

II. Figures of Speech. 

I. Figures of Orthography and Etymology 232 

II. Figures of Syntax 233 

III. Figures of Rhetoric 234 

III. Utterance. 

I. Versification 238 

II. Feet 238 

III. Kinds of Verse 239 

OO^XCK) 

Selections for Analysis and Parsing 241 




English Grammar 



Grammar is the science which treats of Language. 



* 



Grammar is divided into four parts ; namely, Orthog- 
raphy, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

Orthography treats of Letters, Etymology of Words, 
Syntax of Sentences, and Prosody of Versification. 



* The matter in this book is divided into two kinds, indicated by 
two varieties of type, and it is important that the object of this arrange- 
ment should be clearly understood. 

It is intended that the pupil should first go through the book, learn- 
ing the matter in the larger type, the declensions and conjugations, 
such portion of the matter in the smaller type, and such portions of the 
Exercises, as may be found expedient, with such oral explanations from 
the teacher as may be necessary. 

Having gone over the whole ground once, or perhaps twice, in this 
way, the pupil will be prepared to take up profitably the remaining 
portion of the Exercises, and the matter in the smaller type. 

11 




First Part. 



>XKcx^ 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography treats of Letters. 

Orthography treats first of letters taken separately, 
and then of the mode of forming them into syllables 
and words, which is called spelling. 

I. LETTERS TAKEN SEPARATELY. 

Letters are written characters or signs used to repre- 
sent certain sounds of the human voice. 

A letter that is not sounded in speaking is called a silent 
letter. 

The letters of any Language are called its Alphabet. 

The English Alphabet contains twenty-six letters. 

Letters are divided into Vowels and Consonants. 
Consonants are subdivided into Mutes and Semi- 
vowels. 

A Vowel can be fully sounded by itself. 

A Consonant cannot be fully sounded unless in con- 
nection with a vowel. 
12 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 13 

This classification has its foundation in the action of the 
organs in uttering the letters. 

When the mouth, throat, and other organs of speech are 
opened in a particular position, and the voice is allowed to 
flow out in a continuous and uniform current, without any 
change in the position of the organs, the sound so formed is 
called a Vowel. In this manner we may prolong the sound 
of a indefinitely, or until out of breath. If, while the voice is 
thus issuing from the mouth, the current of sound is inter- 
rupted by a partial compression of the organs, the sound 
becomes a Semi-vowel. Thus, while prolonging the sound 
of a, if we press the tongue upon the upper part of the mouth, 
but allow the voice still to proceed, the sound becomes that 
of the letter /, as in the word ale. If this compression becomes 
so great as actually to close the organs, the sound ceases, and 
in the very act of ceasing gives rise to a Mute. Thus, in the 
case just mentioned, if instead of pressing the tongue upon 
the roof of the mouth, we press it against the teeth, and en- 
tirely stop the passage of the voice, the actual termination of 
the sound is that indicated by the letter t, as in the word ate. 
This process may be reversed. The letter t may be formed 
first and the vowel follow it, as in pronouncing the word tale. 
In this case the mute is the very beginning of sound. 

A Mute, then, is the mere commencement or termination 
of the sound, on opening or closing the organs ; a Semi-vowel 
is a partial interruption or modification of the sound, caused 
by changing the position of the organs during utterance ; and 
a Vowel is the very sound itself prolonged without change. 

Vowels. 

The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. 

All the other letters are Consonants. 

W and y are consonants when they precede a vowel sound 
in the same syllable ; as, won, young ; but are vowels in all other 
places; as, boy, law. 

A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound ; 
as, oi in voice. 

A Proper Diphthong is one in which both the vowels are 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sounded. The Proper diphthongs are two, namely, oi and ou, 
as in loin, loud. 

An Improper Diphthong is one in which only one vowel 
is sounded ; as, oa in boat. The Improper diphthongs are 
numerous. Strictly speaking, they are not diphthongs, but 
merely single vowel sounds preceded or followed by other 
vowels that are not sounded. 

A Triphthong is the union of three vowels in one 
sound ; as, ieu in adieu. 

The triphthongs are three in number, eau,'ieu, lew ; as in 
beauty, lieutenant, review. Like improper diphthongs, they 
contain only one vowel sound. 

U after q is never considered as part of a diphthong or 
of a triphthong. 

Consonants. 

The Consonants are divided into Mutes and Semi- 
vowels. 

The Mutes and Semi-vowels may be distinguished both by 
the name and by the sound. 

In naming the mutes, the accompanying vowel usually 
follows; &s,pe,be; in naming the semi-vowels, the accom- 
panying vowel precedes ; as, ef, el. 

In sounding the mutes, the voice is stopped short, as in op; 
in sounding the semi-vowels, the voice may be prolonged, 
as in al. 

The mutes are b, d, k, p, q, t, and c and g hard. 

The semi-vowels are /, h,j, I, m, n, r, s, v, x, z ; c and g soft, 
and w and y, when they are not vowels. 

Four of the semi-vow T els, I, m, n, r, are also called Liquids. 

The consonants are sometimes divided according to the 
part of the vocal organs by which they are formed. The prin- 
cipal divisions of this sort are labials, dentals, 'palatals, gutturals, 
nasals, and Unguals. 

Labials are formed chiefly by the lips, Dentals by the teeth, 
Palatals by the palate, Gutturals by the throat, JjfosaJis. by the 
nose, and Linguals by the tongue. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 15 

The Labials are p, b, f, v ; the Dentals t, d, c soft, 5, z ; the 
Palatals g soft and j ; the Gutturals k, q, and c and g hard ; the 
Nasals m and n ; and the Linguals I and r. 

Exercises. — Classify the letters of the following words ac- 
cording to the divisions named above — i. e., in each word 
name : 1, the vowels; 2, the consonants; 3, the mutes; 4, the 
semi-vowels ; 5, the liquids ; 6, the labials, etc. 

Multitudinous, frequently, upheaval, influential, algebra, 
robbery, lieutenant, grotesque, reviewing, ocean, herbaceous, 
knowledge, slaughter, employer, thievish, joyfully, willow, 
willingly, yielding. 

II. WORDS AND SYLLABLES. 

A Word is a collection of letters used together to 
represent some idea. 

A Syllable is so much of a word as can be pronounced 
by one impulse of the voice ; as, con in contain. 

Spelling 1 is putting letters together correctly so as to 
form syllables and words. 

There are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels 
and diphthongs, not counting those which are silent or un- 
sounded. 

A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable ; of 

two, a Dissyllable ; of three, a Trisyllable ; of more than 

three, a Polysyllable. 

Example. — Truth is a monosyllable ; truth-ful, a dissyllable ; 
truth-ful-ness, a trisyllable ; un-truth-ful-ness, a polysyllable. 

Exercise. — To what class does each of the following words 
belong ? 

Nation, uprightness, incomprehensible, authority, frequent, 
plague, opportunity, horse, element, elementary, robber, vowel, 
consonant. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rules for Spelling. 
RULE I.— Y final. 

Part 1. — Y final, preceded by a consonant, is changed 
into i on taking a suffix ; as, fanc-y, fanc-i-ful (not 
fanc-y-ful). 

A suffix is a letter or syllable added to the end of a 
word. 

Exception 1. — Before ous, y sometimes becomes e, as beaut-y, 
beaut-e-ous. 

Exception 2. — Before ing, y is not changed ; as, tarr-y, tarr- 
y-ing. 

Part 2. — Y final, preceded by a vowel, is not changed 
on taking a suffix ; as, play, play-er. 

Exceptions. — Day, which makes daily ; lay, pay, and say, 
which make laid, paid, and said, together with various other 
derivatives and compounds, as mislaid, unpaid, unsaid. 

Exercises. — Write the words formed by adding Jul to 
mercy, plenty, bounty, duty, pity ; by adding es and ing to cry, 
pry, try, apply, deny, rely ; by adding er and est to merry, sorry, 
saucy, holy; by adding hood to likely; craft to handy; ed to 
quarry, journey; ful to beauty, pity; ous to glory, pity; es to 
melody ; ous to melody ; ety to gay ; ly to gay, witty ; er to betray, 
witty ; ing to journey. 

Write ten examples of y final changed to i, under Part 1 of 
the Rule. 

Five examples of y final becoming e, under Exception 1. 

Five examples of y final not changed, under Exception 2. 

Ten examples of y final not changed, under Part 2 of the 
Rule. 

RULE II.— E final, silent. 

Part 1. — E final, silent, on taking a suffix beginning 
with a vowel, is dropped; as, care, car-ing. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 17 

Exception 1.— Ie, on taking the suffix ing, is changed into 
y ; as, die, dy-ing. 

Exception 2. — Dye (to color), hoe, and shoe do not drop e on 
taking the suffix ing ; as, dye-ing, hoe-ing, shoe-ing. 

Exception 3. — Singe, swinge, and tinge do not drop e on 
taking the suffix ing. This is to retain the soft sound of the g, 
and to distinguish them from the corresponding forms of sing, 
swing, ting. Thus : sing-ing, swing-ing, ting-ing ; singe-ing, swinge- 
ing, tinge-ing. 

Exception 4. — Ce and ge, on taking a suffix beginning with 
a, o, or u, do not drop the e. This is to retain the soft sound 
of the c and g. Thus : service-able, not servic-able ; change-able, 
not chang-able. 

Part 2. — E final, silent, on taking a suffix beginning 
with a consonant is not dropped ; as, care, care-ful. 

Exceptions. — Judgment, lodgment, abridgment, acknowledg- 
ment, argument; wisdom, nursling; duly, truly, awful, with some 
corresponding derivatives of due and true, such as duty, dutiful, 
truth, truthful. 

Exercises. — Write the words formed by adding ing to bite, 
force, revive ; by adding able to admire, adore, deplore; en to ripe; 
ing to smoke, tie, pave, trace, lie ; ness to ripe, repulsive ; ical to 
sphere; ant to dispute; some to tire; ment to pave ; able to service, 
cure, marriage, trace; ible, to defense; ous to fame, courage; 
less to defense. 

Exercises. — Write : — 

Ten examples of e final dropped, under Part 1 of the 
Eule. 

Five examples of ie changed to y, under Exception 1. 

Ten examples of e final not dropped, under Part 2 of the 
Kule. 

RULE III.— Words ending in 11. 

Words ending in II drop one I on taking a suffix be- 
ginning with a consonant ; as, full, fulness ; also some- 
times on taking a prefix ; as, full, hand-ful; till, un-til. 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Exercises. — Write the words formed by adding to all the 
words though, together ; by combining with and all ; by combin- 
ing arm and full; all and most; all and ways; full and fill; 
well and come ; use and full. 

Write :— 

Ten examples of I dropped on taking a suffix. 
Ten examples of I dropped on taking a prefix. 

RULE IV.— Doubling* the final consonant. 

In words accented on the last syllable, a final conso- 
nant, if single, and if preceded by a single vowel, is 
doubled on taking a suffix beginning with a vowel ; as, 
permit, permit-t-ing. 

Monosyllables, being always accented, come of course under 
this rule. 

Here are four conditions : 

1. The last syllable must have the accent. 

2. It must end in a single consonant. 

3. This single consonant must be preceded by a single 

vowel. 

4. The suffix must begin with a vowel. 

There are more than sixty words about which there is a 
disagreement among lexicographers as to whether the final 
consonant should or should not be doubled. These words, 
ending chiefly in I, conform to the three other conditions of 
the rule, but are not accented on the last syllable. Webster 
and those who accept him as an authority do not double the 
final consonant in these cases. Worcester and his English 
predecessors, Richardson, Walker, Johnson and others, double 
the final consonant. Worcester writes travel, travelling, trav- 
eller; worship, worshipping, worshipper. Webster writes travel, 
traveling, traveler; worship, worshiping, worshiper. 

The words in question are the following : worship, kidnap, 
compromit, bias ; carburet, sulphuret and some other like words 
in chemistry ; and the following fifty-three in I, namely, apparel, 
bevel, bowel, embowel, cancel, carol, cavil, channel, chisel, counsel, 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 19 

cudgel, dishevel, drivel, duel, enamel, equal, gambol, gravel, grovel 
hatchel housel, jewel, kennel, label, laurel, level, libel, marshal 
marvel, model, panel, empanel, parallel, parcel, pencil, peril im- 
peril, pistol, pommel, quarrel, ravel, unravel, revel, rival rowel 
shovel, shrivel, snivel, tassel, trammel, travel, tunnel, victual 

Exercises.-Write the words formed by adding ing and ed 
to remit, impel; ist to drug, machine, novel, natural; er to revel • 
ed to fulfil, rub, fail, refer; ing to squat, sail, gallop, hum; ant to 
assist; ent to excel; ine to adamant; ate to alien, origin; en to red 
moist, fright; ar to consul ; er to propel; ous to mountain; y to 
mud, meal, sleep ; ee to commit, absent, patent; ard to slug, drunk 

to it f ° rmmg GaCh C ° mbination > S ive the Eul * applicable 
Write : 

Ten examples of doubling the final consonant under the 
Rule. 

Five examples in which the first condition only is wanting 
Five, m which the second only is wanting. 
Five, in which the third only is wanting. 
Five, in which the fourth only is wanting. 

RULE V.— The terminations elve and ieve. 
In such words as receive, relieve, ei is used if the letter 
c precedes; as, receive, deceive; but ie is used if any 
other letter precedes; as, relieve, believe. 

' Miscellaneous Exercises. 

Combine the following words and suffixes, making the 
necessary changes; and show in each case the application of 
the Rule. 

1. Add ing to live, assail, compel, repent; est to lively; so to 
all; ish to boy; ed to commit; ment to commit. 

2. Add ness to happy, lovely; full to art; some to whole; y to 
smoke, trick; able to love; th to true; full to truth; ness to truth- 
ful; ty to due; full to duty; ly to dutiful. 

3. Add ing to copy, induce, propel, embroil, infer; ed to copy, 
delay; ly to whole; ment to induce; ence to infer. 



20 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



4. Add er to refine, libel; ment to amaze, refine; ing to amaze, 
whip ; ous to glory, beauty ; ed to sulphuret ; Jul to beauty. 

5. Add some to full; full to awe; fare to well; ing to a&e£, 
consent, remit, differ ; ment to fulfil. 

Write the words so combined. 

Draw a line through the silent letters. 

Mark the accented syllable. 



Letters 



Words 



Spelling 



TOPICAL OUTLINE. 

90^00 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 



Vowels. < 



f Diphthong j P ™P er > 

1 ■ rn • i^i l Improper. 

(^ lnphthong. 

Mutes, 

Semi-vowels — liquids, 

Labials, 

n Dentals, 

Consonants. { ' 

Palatals, 
Gutturals, 

Nasals, 
Linguals. 

r Monosyllable, 
J Dissyllable, 
Trisyllable, 
v Polysyllable. 

y y final — exceptions. 
e, final — silent, exceptions. 
II, final. 

Doubling the final consonant. 
^ eive y ieve. 



Syllables 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 21 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

What is Grammar? Name its divisions. Of what does 
Orthography treat? Under what head is Spelling placed? 
What are Letters ? What is an Alphabet ? When is a letter 
silent? Into what classes are letters divided? What is a 
Vowel? a Consonant? a Mute? a Semi-vowel? What is a 
Diphthong? a Proper Diphthong? an Improper Diphthong? 
What is a Triphthong ? How may the mutes and semi-vowels 
be distinguished? Name the letters that belong to the dif- 
ferent classes. Why is a Dental so called ? What is a Word ? 
a Syllable ? a Polysyllable ? 

In forming the following words, what word and suffix are 
combined ? What change, if any, takes place ? What rule is 
applicable ? 

Dutiful, beauteous, tarrying, player, daily, caring, dying, 
dyeing, singeing, changeable, careful, duly, druggist, be- 
lieving. 




Second Part. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology treats of Words. 

Words are considered in regard to their Classification, 
Inflection, and Derivation. 

By the Classification of words is meant the arrange- 
ment of them into different classes, according to their 
signification and use. 

By the Inflection of words is meant the change of 
form which they undergo. 

By the Derivation of words is meant tracing them to 
their original form and meaning. 

Give an illustration of each of these definitions. 



CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 
The classes of words in English are nine ; namely, 
Articles, Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, 
Adverbs, Conjunctions, Prepositions, and Inter- 
jections. These classes of words are sometimes called 
The Parts of Speech. 

The Parts of Speech may be classed and defined as 
follows : 
22 



ETYMOLOGY. 23 

1. Name Words. 

Nouns. — A Noun is the name of any person, place, or 
thing; as, John, school, book. 

2. Representative Words. 
Pronouns. — A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; 
as, The man is happy because he is benevolent. 
3. Action Words. 
Verbs. — A Verb is a word used to assert or affirm ; as, John 
strikes the table ; Mary studies her lesson. 

4. Modifying Words. 

Articles. — An Article is the word a, an, or the, placed before 
a noun to show whether the noun is used in a definite, or in 
an indefinite sense. 

Adjectives. — An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun 
or a pronoun ; as, A green tree, A wise man, Brave soldiers, She 
is studious. 

Adverbs. — An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an 
adjective, or another adverb; as, He writes rapidly, A very 
fast horse, He wrote very rapidly. 

5. Relation Words. 

Prepositions. — A Preposition is a word placed before a noun 
or a pronoun to show its relation to some other word ; as, He 
writes with a pen, He lives in a tent, He spoke to them. 

6. Connecting Words. 
Conjunctions. — A Conjunction is a word used to connect 
words, sentences, and parts of sentences ; as, John and James 
study, John writes and James reads, He is neither strong in 
body nor sound in mind. 

7. Independent Words. 
Interjections. — An Interjection is a word used in making 
sudden exclamations ; as, oh ! ah ! alas ! 

Name the part of speech to which each of the following 
words belongs : 

River, sea, see, men, committee, eat, look (2), armory, 
arm (2), arms, tiger, leopard, sergeant, we, who, my, mine (3), 
with, great, kind (2), crowd (2), large, and, or, neither, ah. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

centre, how, up, that, nobody, hill, hilly, mountainous, great- 
est, an, action, charge (2), giant (2), down, whether, wharf, 
music, musician, musical, musically, now, never, more. 

In the following sentences, name the part of speech of each 
word: 

The enemy is upon us. I did not see him. He lifted his 
hand. He will come when he is called. I have no friends 
who will help me. How can I help my friend? Who is he? 
What sort of a man is he ? Have you heard the news ? 

In the following paragraph, name the part of speech of each 

word: 

" But we pray 

That all mankind may make one brotherhood, 
And love and serve each other ; that all wars 
And feuds die out of nations, whether those 
Whom the sun's hot light darkens, or ourselves 
Whom he treats fairly, or the northern tribes 
Whom ceaseless snows and starry winters blench, 
Savage or civilized, — let every race, 
Eed, black, or white, olive, or tawny-skinned, 
Settle in peace and swell the gathering hosts 
Of the great Prince of Peace." 



♦o^o«- 



I. THE ARTICLE. 

An Article is the word a, an, or the placed before a 
noun to show whether the noun is used in a definite, 
or in an indefinite sense. 

The Articles are a and the. 

A is the Indefinite Article, the is the Definite 
Article. 

The Article a is written before a consonant sound ; 
as, a man, a bird. 

The Article a is written an before a vowel sound ; as, 
an eagle, an old man. 



THE NOUN. 25 

and u sometimes have a consonant sound at the 
beginning of a word ; as, one, unit. 

H before a vowel is sometimes silent ; as, hour, honor. 

A or an means one, and is used only before the singu- 
lar number ; as, a man, an apple. 

The is used before both numbers ; as, the man, the men. 

Articles are sometimes called limiting or definitive adjectives. 
As a limiting word an article modifies the word to which it 
relates. 

Exercises. — Name the appropriate indefinite article to be 
used before each of the following words : 

Ewe, yew, eye, ear, watch, one-eyed man, European, Indian, 
umbrella, use, end, day, opening, engineer, horse, honest, 
hiatus, human, humble, onion, orchard, usury, unit, eagle. 

Write each of these words in a sentence. 

Write the following sentences and fill the blanks with the 
proper article : 

old man and — — boy walked on highway. 

eagle is noble bird. 

mills of gods grind slowly. 

water rushed like torrent down hillsides. 

honest man is noblest work of God. 

Borneo is island. 

Philadelphia is city. 

man is known by company he keeps. 

What does each of the articles used in the preceding sen- 
tences modify? 

II. THE NOUN. 
A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing ; 
as, John, school, book. 

Letters and words used technically are to be considered 
nouns ; as, " C is sounded hard before a, o, u." " lb means 
pound. " "Me is a pronoun." " + 'is the sign of addition." 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

I. CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 

Nouns are divided into two general classes, Proper 
and Common. 

A Proper noun is a name given to only one of a class 
of objects ; as, John, London, Delaware. 

A Proper noun should always begin with a capital letter. 

A Common noun is a name given to any one of a 
class of objects ; as, boy, city, river. 

Exercises. — Which of the following nouns are Proper, and 
which Common? Which should begin with a capital letter? 

england, colony, holland, empire, america, queen, victoria, 
illinois, poet, milton, boy, girl, tree, city, Philadelphia, balti- 
more, hudson, Wednesday, tuesday, autumn, february, henry, 
mary, river. 

Write each of these nouns in a sentence. 

FURTHER CLASSIFICATION. 

Some Common nouns are further classified as Collective, 
Abstract, Verbal, and Diminutive. 

A Collective noun is the name of a collection of objects 
considered as one : as, army, crowd. A Collective noun is also 
called a Noun of Multitude. 

Name other examples of Collective nouns. 

An Abstract noun is one which denotes the name of a 
quality apart from the substance to which it belongs ; as, sweet- 
ness, beauty. Abstract nouns are derived from adjectives. 

Name other examples, and state from what adjective derived. 

A Verbal noun is one derived from a verb ; as, reading. 
It is also called a Participial noun. 

Name other examples, and state from what verb derived. 

A Diminutive noun is one derived from another noun, 
and expressing some object of the same kind but smaller; as 
stream, streamlet ; leaf, leaflet ; hill, hillock ; duck, duckling ; goose, 
gosling. 



THE NOUN. 27 

Exercises. — To what kind or class does each of the follow- 
ing common nouns belong ? 

Islet, spelling, lambkin, hillock, acuteness, loyalty, flock, 
senate, jury, council, army, herd, class, committee, fighting, 
swearing, idleness. 

Write a list of ten collective nouns; ten abstract nouns; 
ten verbal nouns; three diminutive nouns; and write each 
one in a sentence. 

Combine two or three of these sentences so as to form a 
connected statement. 



II. ATTRIBUTES OF NOUNS. 

Nouns have the attributes of Gender, Number, 
Person, and Case. 

I. GENDER. 

Gender is the distinction of nouns in regard to Sex. 

Nouns have three genders, Masculine, Feminine, 
and Neuter. 

The Masculine Gender denotes objects of the male 
sex ; as, boy, man, 

The Feminine Gender denotes objects of the fe- 
male sex ; as, girl, woman. 

The Neuter Gender denotes objects without sex ; 
as, book, river. 

Write ten examples of nouns in each of the genders. 

Modes of Distinguishing Gender. 
There are three ways of distinguishing gender : 

1. By the use of different words; as, bachelor, maid; son, 
daughter. 

2. By difference of termination ; as, giant, giantess ; editor, 
editress. 

3. By prefixing or affixing another word; as, man-servant, 
maid-servant; land-lord, land-lady. 



28 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



1. By the use of different words. 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Bachelor 


maid 


Lad 


lass 


Beau 


belle 


Lord 


lady 


Boar 


sow 


Male 


female 


Boy 


girl 


Man 


woman 


Brother 


sister 


Master 


miss 


Buck 


doe 


Mister 


Mistress 


Bull 


) 


or Mr. 


Mrs. 


Bullock 


> cow 


Milter 


spawn er 


Ox 


J 


Nephew 


niece 


Steer 


heifer 


Papa 


mamma 


Colt 


filly 


Bam 


ewe 


Drake 


duck 


Singer 


songstress 


Earl 


countess 


Sir 


[■ madam 


Father 


mother 


Sire (the king) 


Friar 


[ nun 


Sire, a horse 


dam 


Monk 


Sloven 


slattern 


Gander 


goose 


Son 


daughter 


Hart 


roe 


Stag 


hind 


Horse 


mare 


Swain 


nymph 


Husband 


wife 


Uncle 


aunt 


King 


queen 


Wizard 


witch. 


And many 


others. 








2. By difference of termination. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Abbot 


abbess 


Director 


directress 


Actor 


actress 


Duke 


duchess 


Ambassador 


ambassadress 


Editor 


editress 


Arbiter 


arbitress 


Elector 


electress 


Author 


authoress 


Emperor 


empress 


Baron 


baroness 


Enchanter 


enchantress 


Benefactor 


benefactress 


Founder 


foundress 


Caterer 


cateress 


Giant 


giantess 


Chanter 


chantress 


God 


goddess 


Conductor 


conductress 


Governor 


governess 


Count 


countess 


Heir 


heiress 


Dauphin 


dauphiness 


Host 


hostess 


Deacon 


deaconess 


Hunter 


huntress 





THE NOUN. 


V 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Instructor 


instructress 


Tiger 


tigress 


Jew 


Jewess 


Traitor 


traitress 


Lion 


lioness 


Tutor 


tutoress 


Marquis 


marchioness 


Tyrant 


tyranness 


Mayor 


mayoress 


Viscount 


viscountess 


Monitor 


monitress 


Votary 


votaress. 


Negro 


negress 






Patron 


patroness 






Peer 


peeress 


Administrator administratrix 


Poet 


poetess 


Executor 


executrix 


Priest 


priestess 


Heritor 


heritrix 


Prince 


princess 


Testator 


testatrix 


Prior 


prioress 


Hero 


heroine 


Prophet 


prophetess 


Landgrave 


landgravine 


Protector 


protectress 


Bridegroom 


bride 


Shepherd 


shepherdess 


Widower 


widow 


Songster 


songstress 


Czar 


czarina 


Sorcerer 


sorceress 


Don 


donna 


Tailor 


tailoress 


Sultan 


sultana. 


3. ] 


By prefixing or \ 


affixing* another word. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Landlord 


landlady 


Man-servant 


maidservant 


Gentleman 


gentlewoman 


Male-child 


female-child 


Archduke 


archduchess 


Veacock 


peahen 


Schoolmaster 


schoolmistress 


Cocfc-sparrow 


hen-sparrow 


He-gosit 


she-goat 


(Grandfather 


grandmother. 



General Remarks on Gender. 

1. Some nouns denote objects which may be either male 
or female ; as, bird, parent. These are said to be of the Com- 
mon gender. 

2. Many masculines have no corresponding feminines ; as, 
baker, brewer, etc. A few feminines have no corresponding 
masculines; as, laundress, brunette, virago, etc. 

3. In some of the words which have both masculine and 
feminine terminations, the masculine is ordinarily used to 
denote both sexes, whenever the office or profession is the idea 
chiefly intended. When, however, it is the intention of the 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sentence to designate the sex of the individual spoken of, the 
change of termination is to be observed. Thus, " the poets of 
the. age" would be correct when speaking of poets of both 
sexes; but the " best poetess of the age " would be used when 
speaking of female writers only. 

4. In speaking of small animals, or of those whose sex 
is not known, or not regarded, they are often considered as 
without sex: thus, we say of a cat "it is treacherous," of an 
infant "it is beautiful," of a deer "it was killed." 

5. A Collective noun is neuter when it refers, not to the 
objects separately, but to the collection as one whole. Thus : 
The class is large ; it must be divided. 

II. NUMBER. 

Number is that attribute of nouns which indicates 
whether One or More than One is meant. 

Nouns have two numbers; the Singular and the 
Plural. 

The Singular Number denotes One, the Plural 
Number denotes more than One. 

Modes of Forming the Plural. 

1. Plural in S. 

Nouns are usually made Plural by adding s to the 
singular; as, book, books. 

Exercise. — Name the plural of house, room, chair, book, 
bee, bird, dog, cat, pen, pencil, noun, poet, tree, flower, ship. 

2. Plural in es. 

Nouns ending in ch soft, s, sh, x, and z, are made 
Plural by adding es ; as, church, churches ; miss, misses ; 
lash, lashes; box, boxes; topaz, topazes. 

Exercise. — Name the plural of dish, peach, larch, match, 
latch, dash, lash, kiss, mess, moss, loss, muss, mass, fuss, rush, 
hiss, wish, sash, fish, quiz, fox, miss, lynx, radish, rhombus. 

State the reason in each case. 

Write sentences each containing one or more of these 
nouns. 



THE NOUN. 31 

Nouns ending in o differ as to the mode of forming the 
plural. Some form the plural by adding es. Among these 
are calico, cargo, hero, motto, mulatto, negro, potato, tomato, tor- 
nado, volcano, etc. Others form the plural by adding simply s. 
Among these are armadillo, cameo, canto, duodecimo, folio, halo, 
junto, memento, octavo, piano, portico, proviso, quarto, salvo, sirocco, 
solo, trio, tyro, virtuoso, zero, etc. 

Exercise.— Name the plural of negro, no, Cato, echo, two, 
buffalo, bamboo, lasso, potato, trio, motto, halo. 

Write the singular and plural forms of all these words in 
sentences. 

3. Plural in ves* 

Most nouns ending in single /, or in fe, are made Plural 
by changing/ or fe into ves ; as, loaf, loaves ; life, lives. 

The following nouns do not change / into ves, but form the 
plural according to the general rule, that is, by adding s to the 
singular; Brief, chief, dwarf, fife, grief gulf, hoof, handkerchief, 
kerchief, mischief, proof reproof, roof, safe, scarf, strife, surf, turf. 

Nouns in double / follow the general rule ; as, muff, muffs. 

Exception. — Staff, a stick, has staves in the plural ; staff, a 
body of officers, has staffs. The compounds of staff all have 
staffs in the plural ; as, flagstaff's, tipstaffs, distaffs, etc. 

Exercise. — Name the plural of wharf, half, cuff, leaf, beef, 
calf, thief, wife, roof, life. 

4. Plural in ieS, 

Nouns ending in y after a consonant are made Plural 
by changing y into ies ; as, lady, ladies. 

Nouns ending in y after a vowel do not change y into ies, 
but form the plural by the general rule ; as, day, days. 

Exercise. — Name the plural of ray, toy, chimney, tray, 
artery, Monday, February, buoy, boy, attorney, valley, money, 
whisky, whiskey, fancy, fairy, sky, penny. 

Write the singular and plural forms of all these words in 
sentences. 

5. Plural in 9 S. 

Letters, figures, and other characters, used as nouns, 
are made plural by adding the apostrophe (') and s ; as, 



32 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Dot your Vs and cross your Vs; the +'s should be 
transposed ; three 6 ? s = two 9 ? s. 

Write the plural of E, if, 0, 3, but. 

Plural of Proper Nouns. 

Proper nouns, and other parts of speech used as nouns, 
are made Plural in the same manner as Common nouns 
of like endings ; as, the Pompeys and Ciceros of the age ; 
the ins and outs of office. 

Write five examples of other parts of speech used as nouns 
in the plural number. 

In words of this kind, ending in y after a consonant, 
the usage is not uniform. Some simply add s ; as, The 
Marys and Marthas; the whys and wherefores. Some 
change the y into ies ; as, The two Sicilies, the Allegha- 
nies y the jive-twenties. 

Nouns Irregular in the Plural. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Man 


men 


Tooth 


teeth 


Woman 


women 


Goose 


geese 


Child 


children 


Mouse 


mice 


Ox 


oxen 


Louse 


lice. 


Foot 


feet 







Write these words in sentences. 



Plurals with Different Significations. 

Singular. Plural. 

Regular. Irregular. 

Brother brothers (of same family) brethren (of same society) 

Die dies (for coining) dice (for gaming) 

Genius . geniuses (men of genius) genii (spirits) 

Index indexes (tables of reference) indices (signs in algebra) 

Penny pennies^) pence) 7 7 . 

Pea peas I distinct objects. pease } the de ™™™ h ™ 

Cow cows J kine } the kind of animal 



THE NOUN. 33 

Exercise. — Write both these plural forms in sentences. 
Name both plurals of the following, and tell the difference 
of the meaning : Fish, fruit, head, sail, shot. 
Write both forms in sentences. 

The compounds of man form the plural in the same manner 
as the simple word ; as, alderman, aldermen. 

Care should be taken not to confound compounds of 
the word man with words that accidentally end in those 
three letters. Thus statesman is really compounded of two 
words, states and man; but Turcoman, Mussulman, German, 
are simple words, like talisman, ottoman (a kind of seat), and 
form the plural regularly, thus : Turcomans, Mussulmans, Ger- 
mans, talismans, ottomans. 

Plural of Compounds. 

Compounds consisting of a noun and an adjective connected 
by a hyphen take the sign of the plural after the noun only ; 
as, court-martial, courts-martial. 

Compounds consisting of two or more words connected by 
a hyphen are sometimes composed of tw T o nouns, one of which 
is used in the sense of an adjective, as man-trap, in which the 
word man is really an adjective ; or of a noun and some com- 
bination of words having the force of an adjective, as father- 
in-law, in which the combination in-law has the force of an 
adjective, as much so as the word legal. In all these com- 
pounds, the sign of the plural is added to that part of the 
compound which really constitutes the noun ; as, man-traps, 
fathers-in-law. 

The compounds of full form the plural regularly ; as, mouth- 
fid, mouthfuls; spoonful, spoonfuls ; bucketful, bucketfuls. 

Exercise. — Name the plural of man-of-war, man-eater, 
drum-major, major-general, sergeant-at-arms, hen-coop, pin- 
cushion, son-in-law, cart-load, chess-man, dog-cart, mouse- trap, 
court-martial, pocket-book, boot-jack, piano-forte, Jack-a-lan- 
tern, man-servant, Knight Templar. 

Write the singular and plural forms of each of these words 
in sentences. 

3 



34 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Plural of Foreign Words. 

Words adopted without change from foreign languages 
usually retain their original plurals. Among these are the 
following : 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Formula 


formulae 


Radius 


radii 


Nebula 


nebulae 


Sarcophagus 


sarcophagi 


Addendum 


addenda 


Stimulus 


stimuli 


Arcanum 


arcana 


Terminus 


termini 


Datum 


data 


Amanuensis 


amanuenses 


Desideratum 


desiderata 


Analysis 


analyses 


Effluvium 


effluvia 


Antithesis 


antitheses 


Erratum 


errata 


Axis 


axes 


Gymnasium 


gymnasia 


Basis 


bases 


Stratum 


strata 


Crisis 


crises 


Automaton 


automata 


Ellipsis 


ellipses 


Criterion 


criteria 


Hypothesis 


hypotheses 


Phenomenon 


phenomena 


Oasis 


oases 


Alumnus 


alumni 


Parenthesis 


parentheses 


Alumna 


alumnae 


Thesis 


theses 


Focus 


foci 


Appendix 


appendices 


Fungus 


fungi 


Vertex 


vertices. 



Select words in the list given above that have the same ter- 
mination, and give the plurals peculiar to each termination. 

Some foreign words are so far domesticated as to have an 



English plural as well as a foreign one. 
following : 



Among these are the 



Singular. 


Foreign Plural. 


English Plural. 


Cherub 


cherubim 


cherubs 


Seraph 


seraphim 


seraphs 


Memorandum 


memoranda 


memorandums 


Medium 


media 


mediums 


Bandit 


banditti 


bandits 


Stamen 


stamina 


stamens. 


General 


Remarks on 


Number. 



1. Some nouns are for the most part not used in the plural. 
Among these are the names of materials, virtues, vices, arts, 






THE NOUN. 35 

and abstract nouns; as, gold, goodness, idleness, wis- 
dom, flour, milk, arithmetic, coffee, hope, cream, butter, grammar, 
flax, music, meat, water. 

Some of these words may be used in the plural. Which? 
Under what conditions? 

2. Some nouns are used only in the plural. Among these 
are annals, antipodes, archives, assets, billiards, bitters, cattle, clothes, 
goods, nuptials, measles, oats, thanks, tidings, victuals, wages, ashes, 
dregs, eaves, head-quarters, hose; also the names of things con- 
sisting of two parts, as, bellows, scissors, tongs, pincers, tweezers, 
trousers, etc. 

3. Some nouns are alike in both numbers. Among these 
are swine, deer, sheep, trout, salmon, etc. ; also several foreign 
words, as, apparatus, series, species, etc. The singular of such 
words may generally be distinguished by the use of the indefi- 
nite article a or an ; as, a series, a deer, a trout, an apparatus, etc. 

4. Many nouns are sometimes alike in both numbers, and at 
other times have a regular form for the plural. Among these 
are head, brace, pair, couple, dozen, score, etc. Thus we say 
" He bought twenty dozen of them," and " He bought them in 
dozens." 

5. Some nouns are plural in form, but either singular or 
plural in meaning. Among them are amends, means, news, 
riches, etc. ; also the names of certain sciences, as, conies, optics, 
ethics, mathematics, etc. 

6. Means and amends are singular when they refer to only 
one object, plural when they refer to more than one. The 
singular mean is also used to signify strictly the middle between 
two extremes. News is rarely found with a plural signification. 
Riches has both a singular and a plural signification. Alms is 
strictly singular. 

7. A collective noun is singular when it refers to the entire 
collection as one thing ; as, " The army was defeated." A 
collective noun is plural when it refers to the individuals of 
the collection ; as, " The public are invited to be present." 

What is the meaning of the following plural nouns when 
used only in the plural : Arms, colors, goods, letters, spectacles, 
vespers, morals. 

Write all the nouns given, in sentences. 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

III. PERSON. 

Person is the distinction of nouns in their relation to 
the speaker. 

Nouns have three persons, First, Second, and 
Third. 

The First person is the Speaker, The Second 
person is the one spoken to, the Third person is 
the one spoken of. 

Exercises. — In the following sentences, tell which words 
are nouns; state of each whether it is proper or common; 
and state the gender, number, and person of each. 

I, John, saw the holy city, new Jerusalem. Rouse, ye 
Romans, rouse, ye slaves. I heard a voice, saying unto me, 
Arise, Peter. We, the people of the United States, in order 
to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic 
tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the gen- 
eral welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves 
and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution 
for the United States of America. 

IV. CASE. 

Case distinguishes the relation of a noun or pronoun 
to other words in the same sentence. 

Nouns have three cases, Nominative, Possessive, 
and Objective. 

The relation indicated by the case of a noun includes 
three ideas — subject, object, and ownership. A noun may be to 
a verb in the relation of its subject, or that of which the asser- 
tion is made, and then it is in the nominative case ; or it may 
be to a verb or a preposition in the relation of its object, or that 
on which some action or relation terminates, and then it is in 
the objective case ; or it may have to some other noun the re- 
lation of ownership or possession, and then it is in the possessive 
case. 

The Nominative Case is that in which a noun is 

the subject of A verb; as, The girl reads. 



THE NOUN. 37 

The Possessive Case is that which denotes owner- 
ship or possession ; as, Mary's book. 

The Objective Case is that in which a noun is the 
object of some verb or preposition; as, Mary 
wrote a letter. William went into the street 

How to find the Nominative.— The subject of the verb 
may be found by putting "who" or "what" before the verb 
and asking the question. Example : " A man bought a hat." 
Who bought? Ans. Man. Therefore, "man" is the subject 
of the verb " bought," and is in the nominative case. 

How to find the Objective.— The object of a verb or of a 
preposition may be found by putting "whom" or "what" 
after the verb or the preposition and asking the question. 
Examples : " William hurt his sister." Hurt whom ? Ans. 
Sister. Therefore, " sister" is the object of the verb "hurt." 
"William went into the street." Into what? Ans. Street. 
Therefore, "street" is the object of the preposition "into." 

Exercises. — Name the subject of each verb in the following 
sentences ; also the object of each verb and preposition : 

A lesson in geography was assigned to the whole division. 

Idleness in youth brings misery in old age. 

Lying leads to other bad habits. 

Charles caught a fish in the lake. 

Exercise strengthens the body. 

The peddler sold oranges, lemons, and bananas. 

A wise son maketh a glad father. 

Mary read an interesting book. 

The vessel was loaded with spices. 

We began our journey. 

The teacher of the second division assigned to the first sec- 
tion a lesson in geography. 

Formation of the Possessive. 

The Possessive Singular is formed from the nomi- 
native singular, by adding an apostrophe (') and s. 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The Possessive Plural is formed from the nomina- 
tive plural, by adding an apostrophe only when the 
plural ends in s, and by adding both the apostrophe 
and s when the plural does not end in s. 

General Remarks on the Possessive. 

1. There was at one time a prevalent notion, which indeed 
to some extent still prevails, that when the nominative ends in 
s the possessive is formed by adding the apostrophe only. This 
is true in the plural, but not in the singular. In the possessive 
singular, both the apostrophe and s are added, though the 
nominative should end in s. The best writers at the present 
day rarely, if ever, omit this additional s. Thus, Adams's 
speeches, Dickens's works, James's books. 

2. When the nominative ends in a sound with which the 
apostrophic s cannot combine, the word is pronounced as if 
es were added. Thus, church's is pronounced exactly like 
churches. In writing these forms, care should be taken not to 
be misled by the sound. 

3. In like manner, in nouns ending in y after a consonant, 
care should be taken not to confound the possessive singular 
and the nominative plural, which are pronounced alike, 
though written differently ; as, lad?/, possessive singular lady's, 
nominative plural ladies. 

4. The import of the possessive may generally be expressed 
by the preposition of; thus, "man r s wisdom " means "the wis- 
dom of man." These two forms of expression, however, do 
not always mean the same. Thus, " the king's picture " may 
mean a picture belonging to the king; but "a picture of the 
king " means a portrait of him. 

5. The apostrophe and s do not always indicate the posses- 
sive case. They are sometimes employed to form the plural 
of mere letters or characters used as nouns ; as, four 3's, ten 
6's; also to form the singular of verbs of a similar character; 
as, " He pro's and con's, and weighs the matter o'er." 

6. The sign of the possessive case is placed at the end of a 
compound noun ; as, My father-in-law's house. 



THE NOUN. 



39 



Declension of Nouns. 

An arrangement of the different forms of the gender, 
number, person, or case of a noun or a pronoun is called 
its Declension. 





Singular. 






Plural. 




Nom. 


Poss. 


Obj. 


Nom. 


Poss. 


Obj. 


Friend 


friend's 


friend 


friends 


friends' 


friends 


Man 


man's 


man 


men 


men's 


men 


Church 


church's 


church 


churches 


churches' 


churches 


Lady 


lady's 


lady 


ladies 


ladies' 


ladies 



Jones Jones's Jones Joneses Joneses' Joneses. 

Exercises in Declension. — Decline fox, farmer, Benjamin, 
James, city, attorney, lass, miss. 

Write the possessive case, singular, of Agnes, Robert Morris, 
Roger Williams, Martin Van Bur en, John Quincy Adams, maid- 
of -all-work. 

Write the possessive case, singular and plural, of baby, 
colony, landlady, dray, calf, mulatto, ox, ox-cart, mouse. 

Write the singular and plural forms of each of these words 
in sentences. 

Correct the following expressions : 

Lazarus 1 son ; The 9s were cast out ; There are two ks in kick ; 
James 9 lesson is hard. 

Name all the Nouns and Articles in the following sentences. 
Name the gender, number, person, and case of each noun. 
Name each verb and give its subject : 

Straws show the way the wind blows. 

They travelled along the road. 

The way was rough, the wind was cold. 

Westward the march of empire takes its way. 

A man's manners often make his fortune. 

Vice stings us in our pleasures ; Virtue consoles us in our 
pains. 

In a great emergency, Grace Darling helped her father to 
row a boat during a dreadful storm, and by this means, in the 
hands of Providence, she prevented sorrow in many mothers' 
hearts. 



40 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



TOPICAL OUTLINE. 

»O^CK> 



Proper. 



THE NOUN. 



I Collective, 



Nouns. 1 



Attributes 

of 

Nouns. 



~ Abstract, 

Common. < ^ r . . ' 
Verbal, 

I Diminutive. 

f Masculine, 

~ , Feminine, 

Gender. < ^ T 

Neuter, 

Common. 
r Singular, 



J 



Number. { 



Plural 



( First, 
Person. < Second, 
I Third. 



Case. 



c Nominative, 
< Possessive, 
I Objective. 



Declension. 



r Plural in s, 
Plural in es, 
Plural in ves, 
Plural in ies, 
Plural in f s. 



+o>K<x>- 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

Of what does Etymology treat? What is meant by the 
inflection of words? How many classes of words are there? 
Name the different parts of speech. 

What is an Article ? Classify them. When is a written an ? 



THE ADJECTIVE. 41 

Which of the articles is written before the plural number ? 
Justify the use of an before onion, and a before union. 

What is a noun? What is a proper noun ? How written? 
What is a common noun ? Define collective noun. Abstract 
noun. What are the attributes of a noun? What conditions 
give rise to these attributes? Define gender. How do we 
distinguish the gender of nouns ? When is a noun said to be 
of the common gender? 

What is number ? How many ? What is the general rule 
for forming the plural ? What nouns form the plural in es, ves, 
ies, 's ? What exceptions to these rules ? Name some irregular 
plurals. Name some nouns that have two plurals. Of what 
are compound nouns composed? How do you write their 
plurals? What is person? How many? 

What is case? How many? Define each. How is the pos- 
sessive singular formed ? The possessive plural ? How do you 
form the possessive case of compound nouns ? Do the apos- 
trophe and s ever indicate the plural ? 

Write a composition on Nouns, using the Topical Outline 
as a basis for the work. 



-^o^^oo- 



III. THE ADJECTIVE. 

An Adjective is a word used to modify a Noun or a 
Pronoun ; as, A green tree, A wise man, Brave soldiers, 
She is studious. 

1. Nouns become adjectives when they are used to express 
some quality of another noun ; as, gold ring, sea water, Alaska 
gold, a cherry box, a farewell address. 

2. Adjectives are sometimes used as nouns, and admit of 
number and case ; as, our superiors, his betters, by fifties, for 
twenhjs sake. 

3. Adjectives preceded by the definite article are often used 
as nouns ; as, " The little that was known of him." When the 
expression refers to persons, the adjective is always considered 
plural ; as, the good," meaning good men. 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Write five other adjectives, and use them in sentences. 
Write an adjective before each of the following nouns : 
Farmer, cloud, sheep, school, scholar, rider, horse, Turks. 
Write sentences, each containing one or more of the pre- 
ceding nouns, with an appropriate adjective. 

I. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives which express number are called Numer- 
als. 

Numeral Adjectives are of three kinds, Cardinal, 
Ordinal, and Multiplicative. 

The Cardinal Adjectives denote the number or 
quantity ; as, one, two, three, four. 

The Ordinal Adjectives denote the order or arrange- 
ment ; as, first, second, third, fourth. 

The Multiplicatives denote how many times ; as, 
single, double, triple. 

There are also various compound adjectives into which 
the numerals enter ; as, one-leaved, two-fold. 

Write three sentences, each containing a cardinal adjective ; 
three, each containing an ordinal adjective ; three, each con- 
taining a multiplicative adjective. 

II. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives are varied by Comparison. 

The degrees of Comparison are three, Positive, Com- 
parative, and Superlative. 

The Positive Degree expresses the quality ; as, small, 
tvise, a young horse, a green field. 

The Comparative Degree expresses the quality in a 
higher or lower degree ; as, smaller, wiser, a softer silk, 
a fiercer animal, a better result. 

The Superlative Degree expresses the quality in the 
highest or lowest degree ; as, smallest, wisest, the largest 



THE ABJECTIVE. 43 

fish, the sweetest music, the best record, the most honored 
name. 

Regular Comparison. 

The Comparative Degree of Adjectives of one sylla- 
ble is usually formed by adding er, and the Superlative 
by adding est, to the Positive ; as, great, greater, greatest 

Adjectives of more than one syllable are usually 
compared by prefixing to the Positive the words more 
and most, less and least; as, numerous, more numerous, 
most numerous; less numerous, least numerous. 

More and most, less and least, when connected with adjec- 
tives, may be considered as adverbs modifying the adjective; 
or the adverb and the adjective may be taken together as the 
comparative or superlative form of the adjective. 

Dissyllables ending in ow, y, or e are usually compared by 
adding er and est; qs, narrow, narrower, narrowest; happy, hap- 
pier, happiest; able, abler, ablest. 

Some adjectives form the superlative by adding most to the 
end of the word ; as, upper, uppermost 

Exercise. — Write five examples of adjectives used in the 
positive degree. Write these adjectives in the comparative 
and in the superlative degrees. Write five sentences, each 
containing one or more of these adjectives. 



Irreguh 


ar Comparison 




Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Good 


better 


best 


Bad, evil, ill 


worse 


worst 


Little 


less 


least 


Much, many 


more 


most 


Far 


( farther 
I further 


( farthest 
I furthest. 



Write five sentences, each containing an adjective of irregu- 
lar comparison. 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Superlatives with Different Meanings. 

Near nearer nearest (in place) next^ 

Late later latest (in time) last \in order. 

Fore former foremost (in place) first J 

Prior j superior, ulterior, exterior, inferior, etc., involve the idea 
of comparison, like the words previous, preferable, and many- 
others, but they are not considered as comparatives and are 
not followed by than, as English comparatives usually are. 

The termination ish makes what is sometimes called a sub- 
positive ; as, bluish, blackish. 

Some of the ideas expressed by adjectives are fixed and 
absolute. That is, they refer to things not capable of increase 
or diminution. Among these may be reckoned those which 
denote some definite number, shape, or position ; as, two, three, 
second, third, circular, triangular, perpendicular ; also those which 
express the substance of which anything is made, as golden, 
flaxen ; also many such words as whole, universal, supreme. All 
such adjectives are incapable of being compared. 

An adjective which merely limits is sometimes called a 
definitive or limiting adjective ; as, " This book," " That boy." 

An Adjective pronoun or Pronominal adjective is a defini- 
tive adjective which may be used as a pronoun. The adjective 
pronouns are : Each, every, either, neither, this, that, yonder, some, 
one, any, other, such, whole. 

Exercise. — Compare unlucky, lucky, benevolent, shady, sad, 
active, abusive, noisy, lazy, gay, fine, irregular, harmonious, juicy, 
ill-natured, thoughtless, beautiful, large, red, square, eligible, dead, 
equal, right. 

Write the superlative of hind, inner, outer, top. 

Write each of the adjective pronouns in a sentence, with 
and without a noun. What word does the adjective modify in 
each of the sentences you have written? 

Name the Nouns, Articles, and Adjectives in the following 
sentences. Name the gender, number, person, and case of 
each of the nouns. What does each of the adjectives and 
articles modify? Name the degree of the adjectives used. 
Name the verb and its subject: 



THE ADJECTIVE, 45 

The wicked often put off repentance to the eleventh hour. 

The exterior of the stone wall was perpendicular. It had a 
thickness of two feet at the top, and was still thicker at the 
bottom. 

We should not consider our inferiors contemptible, for 
though they may be our inferiors in rank, they are perhaps 
our superiors in virtue. 

Rain water is less pleasant to the taste than river or spring 
water is. Though the former may contain less foreign matter, 
the latter is more acceptable to the thirsty. 



TOPICAL OUTLINE. 
THE ADJECTIVE. 

Descriptive — Definitive. 

c Cardinal, 
Numeral. < Ordinal, 

I Multiplicative, 

{Positive, 
Comparative, 
Superlative. 

Irregular. 



+c&K< 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

What is an adjective? When called descriptive? When 
called definitive or limiting? What is the office of the adjec- 
tive? Into what two classes divided? What is a numeral ad- 
jective? Name the three classes. What does each denote? 
When do adjectives become nouns? When do nouns become 
adjectives? Give an example of a compound adjective. Why 
so called? 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

How are adjectives varied? Name the degrees of compari- 
son. What does each express? Illustrate. How are the 
degrees formed? When do we prefix words to form these 
degrees ? What exception ? What is meant by an irregular 
comparison? Illustrate. Give another method of forming 
the superlative. Justify the use of nearest and next as superla- 
tives. Is superior a comparative ? Why ? Compare dead, 
square, right. Why? What is. a definitive or limiting adjec- 
tive? What do adjectives modify? What is an adjective pro- 
noun, or pronominal adjective? 

Write a composition on Adjectives, using the Topical Out- 
line as a basis. 

00>©<00 



IV. THE PRONOUN. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; as, 
"The man is happy because he is benevolent." 

Pronouns are divided into three classes : Personal,, 
Relative, and Adjective. 

The leading or prominent idea gives name to each 
class of pronouns. The leading idea in the Personal 
pronoun is the distinction of person ; in the Relative 
pronoun it is the relation to an antecedent ; in the Adjec- 
tive pronoun it is the relation to some noun in the man- 
ner of an adjective. 

Personal and Relative Pronouns have Gender, Num- 
ber, Person, and Case. Adjective Pronouns have Num- 
ber only. 

I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

The Personal Pronouns are I, thou, he, she, it; and 
their plurals, we, you, they. 

Personal Pronouns are so called because they denote 
persons by themselves, without reference to any other 
word. 



THE PRONOUN. 



47 



Declension of the Personal Pronouns. 
First Person — Masc. or Fem. 



Singular. 




Plural. 


Nom. I 




Nom. we 


Poss. my, or mine 




Poss. our, or ours 


Obj. me 




Obj. us. 


Second Person — Masc. or Fem. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. thou 




Nom. you 


Poss. thy, or thine 




Poss. your, or t/ows 


Obj . thee 




Obj. you. 


Third Person — Masculine. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom . he 




Nom. #&ei/ 


Poss. his 




Poss. £to>, or theirs 


Obj. him 




Obj. <km. 


Third Person — Feminine. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. she 




Nom. they 


Poss. her , or hers 




Poss. tf/im', or ^aVs 


Obj. to 




Obj. them. 


Third 


Person — Neuter. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. ^ 




Nom. they 


Poss. #s 




Poss. their, or ffretrs 


Obj. it 




Obj. £/iera. 



Remarks on the Personal Pronouns. 

1. In the first person, the plural we is often used for the sin- 
gular I, by Editors, Reviewers, Governors, etc. 

2. In the second person, the plural is generally used for the 
singular. Thus, you is used for thou, your or yours for thy or 
thine, and you for thee. In prayers to God, however, and on 
other solemn occasions, we use the singular form, thou, thy or 
thine, thee. 

3. Where a plural pronoun is thus used, while only one per- 
son is meant, the verb as well as the pronoun must be plural. 
Thus : we are, not we is ; you were, not you was. 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. The second person plural had originally ye in the nomina- 
tive and you in the objective. The form ye, however, has now 
become obsolete in prose, but is sometimes used in poetry. 

5. The Possessives should never be written with an apos- 
trophe, her's, it's, our's, your's, their 's, but always thus : hers, its, 
ours, yours, theirs. 

6. The adjective own is frequently found connected with the 
possessive case of the personal pronoun, in order to make the 
possessive emphatic; thus, " It is your own fault/ ' 

7. The pronoun it is sometimes used indefinitely or without 
reference to any particular word ; as, it rains, it snows, it is one 
o'clock, it is I, it is a plain statement. 

Compound Personal Pronouns. 

The Compound Personal Pronouns are myself, thyself } 
himself, herself, and itself, with their plurals, ourselves, 
yourselves, themselves. 

In the Compound Personal Pronouns, the nominative and 
objective cases are alike, and the possessive is wanting. 

Exercise. — Write twelve sentences, each containing one 
or more of the personal and compound personal pronouns. 

In the following sentences, name the nouns, pronouns, ad- 
jectives, and articles. Name the class, properties, and use of 
each. State what each article and each adjective modifies. 
To what noun does each pronoun refer? In what case is 
each pronoun ? Name the verbs in each sentence, and name 
the subject of each. 

William lost his brother's new book. 

When John was at school, he wrote a letter to his 
father. 

The wind, when it blows upon my body, making it shiver, 
tells me that I am mortal, though some persons would only 
complain that they were obliged to bear its buffetings. 

The Queen of Sheba retired from Solomon's presence con- 
vinced that his wisdom was greater than any account that had 
been given to her of it would have led her to infer. 

We, the people, watch with jealousy %\\Q$Q who are our 



THE PRONOUN. 49 

rulers, that they may not infringe upon our rights, and that 
the liberties which we possess may be secured to our children 
when they succeed us. 

II. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

The Relative Pronouns are, who, which, what, and 
that. 

The Relative Pronouns are so called because they re- 
late to some word going before, called the antecedent ; 
as, "The boy who wishes to be learned must be studious." 

Who is used in speaking of persons ; as, " The gentle- 
man who called was denied admission," " The lady who 
called was my mother." 

Which is used in speaking of inferior animals, or of 

things without life; as, "The horse which was bought 

by my uncle is a beautiful animal," " The book which 

was given to me is very valuable. 

Which is often used as an adjective pronoun; as, u Which 
things are an allegory." 

What, as a relative, takes the place of which when- 
ever the antecedent is omitted, and is equivalent to the 
thing which, or the things which, hence, may be either 
singular or plural. 

" This is the thing which I wanted." If we omit the ante- 
cedent, which must be changed to what. "This is what I 
wanted." 

What always refers to things without life, and therefore is 
always neuter. It may be either singular or plural. " What 
[the thing which] appears to be a fault is only a virtue in dis- 
guise." " What [the things which] appear to be faults are 
only virtues in disguise." 

What is often used as an adjective pronoun; as, "We lost 
what books we had." 

That, as a relative, takes the place of either who or 
which 

4 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

That is used in speaking either of persons or of things, and 
is used in both numbers ; as, " The best boy that lives," " The 
book that was lost," " The best boys that live/' " The books that 
were lost." 

The word that is used in three senses. 1. Sometimes it has 
the meaning of who or which; as, " The best boy that lives;" 
and then it is a Relative Pronoun. 2. Sometimes it points out 
a noun; as, that boy; and then it is an Adjective Pronoun. 
3. Sometimes it shows the dependence of one verb upon 
another ; as, " He wished that he had done it ; " and then it is 
a Conjunction. 

What and that are indeclinable. 

Who and which are alike in both numbers, and are 
thus declined : 

Sing, and Plur. Sing, and Plur. 



Nom. who 
Poss. whose 
Obj. whom 



Nom. which 
Poss. whose 
Obj. which. 



A Relative Pronoun is always of the same gender, 
number, and person as its antecedent. 

The relative pronoun acts as a connective, and intro- 
duces into the body of a sentence an additional state- 
ment. This statement is called a Clause, and in its use 
or office it is either an adjective or a noun ; as, " The 
money which was lost has been found " (Adjective clause). 
"He lost what I gave him" (Noun clause). 

Name the relative in the following sentences. Name the 
clause and state its use. 

Do you know who has arrived ? 
I believe that he will answer my letter. 
The earth, on which we live, is a planet. 
I forgot the message which you gave me. 
The ship which brought the goods was called " Juno." 
Who that loves his country would ever consent to act so ? 
The hope that is unreasonable is sometimes the hardest to 
remove. 






THE PRONOUN. 51 

Who ask and reason thus, can scarce conceive 
God gives enough when He has more to give. 
Exercise. — Write five sentences, each containing one or 
more of the relative pronouns. 

Compound Relatives. 
The Compound Relative Pronouns are whoever, whoso- 
ever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, whatsoever. 

The Compound Relative Pronouns are formed by add- 
ing ever and soever to the relatives who, which, and what. 

These Compounds are sometimes separated by an inter- 
vening noun; as, " Into whose house soever ye enter." 

Whosoever is regularly declined like who ; thus, 

Sing, and Plur. 
Nom. whosoever 
Poss. whosesoever 
Obj . whomsoever. 

The other Compound Relatives are indeclinable. 

Whichever, whichsoever, whatever, and whatsoever are also used 
as adjective pronouns; as, " Whichever side you choose, you are 
sure to win." 

Exercise. — Write six sentences, each containing one or 
more of the compound relatives. 

Interrogatives and Responsives. 

In asking questions, who, which, and what are called 
Interrogatives. 

In answering questions, who, which, and what are called 
Responsives. 

As Interrogatives, who, which, and what have no antecedent, 
but relate to a word subsequent, contained in the answer. Thus, 
"Who did it? John.' 7 

As responsives, who, which, and what seem to relate to no 
word, either antecedent or subsequent. Thus, in the response, 
"I do not know who wrote it," supplying an antecedent 
changes the meaning. " I do not know the person who wrote 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

it," means, I am not acquainted with him, which is quite a dif- 
ferent idea. 

Which and what, when used as Interrogatives, or Responsives, 
or when joined with ever and soever, apply to persons as well as 
things; as, Which of them did it? John. What is he? A 
lawyer. 

The Responsive used in answering a question must be the 
same as the one used in asking it ; thus, Who wrote the book ? 
I do not know who wrote it. Which of the gentlemen was it? 
I do not know which of them it was. What is he ? I do not 
know what he is. 

In asking about persons, who inquires for the name; as " Who 
wrote the book? Mr. Webster;" which asks for the particular 
individual, where there are several persons of the same name ; 
as, " Which of the Websters wrote it? Noah Webster; " what 
asks for the person's character or occupation; as, " What was Mr. 
Webster? A lexicographer." 

Exercise. — Write six sentences, each containing one or 
more of the Interrogatives and the Responsives. 

In the following sentences, name all the nouns, pronouns, 
articles, and adjectives. Name the class, properties, and use 
of each. 

Give a reason for your answer in each case. 

What does each article and adjective modify? 

To what word does each pronoun relate ? 

Name each verb and its subject : 

John, who was at school, wrote a letter to his father. 

What happened to you and your sister on your way to school ? 

By what slow degrees the little acorn becomes the mighty 
oak ! 

In the haste and confusion, I could not see by whom he was 
struck. 

Whatever skill I have in composition is due to the manner 
in which I was trained. 

He who knows what is good and chooses it, who knows 
what is bad and avoids it, is learned and temperate. 

In this country in which we live, every one that is a citizen 
can enjoy what in other countries is enjoyed by only a favored 
few. The President whom we have just chosen to rule over us 



THE PRONOUN. 53 

is a living example of what the poorest man may achieve. 
Whoever has the ability to rise, is in no way checked by a 
government which affords equal protection to all. 

III. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

The Adjective Pronouns are so called because they 
modify or limit a noun in the manner of an adjective ; 
they are frequently called Pronominal Adjectives. 

The Adjective Pronouns are subdivided into three 
kinds or classes : Distributive, Demonstrative, and In- 
definite. 

I. DISTRIBUTIVES. 

The Distributive Adjective Pronouns are each, every, 
either, neither. 

The Distributive Adjective Pronouns are so called because 
they refer separately and singly to each person or thing of a 
number of persons or things. The Distributive Adjective Pro- 
nouns, therefore, are all in the singular number. 

Each is used when speaking of two or more ; as, "Each of 
you must go directly home/' This will be correct whether 
it is addressed to two persons, or to more than two. 

Every is never used except when speaking of more than 
two; as, "Every one of you must go directly home." This 
would not be correct if addressed to only two persons. 

Each and every mean all that make up the number, although 
taken separately. 

Either means one or the other, but not both. It is used, 
therefore, when speaking of but two persons or things. 

Neither means not either. 

Exercise. — Write four sentences, each containing one or 
more of the distributive adjective pronouns. 

In what number is each of the pronouns in these sentences ? 
Why? 

II. DEMONSTRATIVES. 

The Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns are this and 
that, with their plurals, these and those. 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns are so called because 
they point out in a definite manner the objects to which they 
relate; as, "This boy recited well, but that boy did not." 
"These men are officers, but those men are privates." 

The Demonstratives this and these, are applied to near ob- 
jects; that and those to objects that are distant. 

In contrast, that refers to the first mentioned, this to the last; 
as, "Wealth and poverty are both temptations; that [wealth] 
tends to excite pride, this [poverty] to discontent." 

Exercise. — Write four sentences, each containing one or 
more of the demonstrative adjective pronouns. 

In what number is each of the pronouns in these sentences? 
Why? 

III. INDEFINITES. 

The Indefinite Adjective Pronouns are any, all, such, 
whole, some, both, one, none, other, another. 

The Indefinite Adjective Pronouns are so called because 
they point out the objects to which they relate in an indefinite 
manner. 

One, other, another are sometimes used as nouns. When thus 
used, they are declined. Thus : 

rNom. One (Norn. Other 

Sing. < Poss. One's Sing. < Poss. Other's 

(Obj. One I Obj. Other 

(Norn. Ones fNora. Others 

Plur. < Poss. Ones' Plur. < Poss. Others' 

(Obj. Ones. (Obj. Others. 

Exercise. — Write ten sentences, each containing one or 
more of the indefinite adjective pronouns. 

In what number is each of the pronouns in these sen- 
tences? Why? 

In the following paragraph, name the nouns, pronouns, 
articles, and adjectives used. Name the class, properties, 
and use of each. Give a reason for your answer in each 
case. What does each article and each adjective modify? 
To what does each pronoun refer? Name each verb and 
its subject: 



THE PRONOUN. 



55 



That class of society in which only those who are wealthy 
are members, and in which each individual possesses no 
other merit, may be respected, but it has not the highest 
claims to respectability. All wise and good men, of any 
class, or of whatever rank, or of either of the two grades 
which the world has made, — the rich and the poor, — are 
worthy of respect. Such men receive the respect of all. 



TOPICAL OUTLINE. 



-<K))#;oo- 



THE PRONOUN. 



Personal Pronouns. \ Sim P le > 

1 Compound. 

[ Simple, 

Relative Pronouns.^ Com P ound ' 

Interrogative, 

Responsive. 

f Distributive, 
Adjective Pronouns. \ Demonstrative, 
[ Indefinite. 



f Gender, 
Declension I Number, 



by 



I Person 
I Case. 



Declension by 
Number. 



-o-O^Oo- 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

What is a pronoun? Why so called? Into what classes 
divided? Why so called? What attributes does each of these 
classes have ? Name the personal pronouns. Give the gender, 
number, person, and case of my, thee, you, us, he, her, them, 
and it. When is a plural pronoun used for a singular noun ? 
What are compound personal pronouns ? Name them. Name 
the relative pronouns. When is who used ? which f what f 
thatf Name the compound relatives. Why so called? Name 
the interrogative pronouns. The responsives. Why so called ? 
As interrogative what does who ask for? which f what? Name 
the subdivisions of the adjective pronouns. Why so called? 
Name the pronouns belonging to each subdivision. 

Write a composition on Pronouns, using the Topical Out- 
line as a basis. 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

V. THE VERB. 

A Verb is a word used to assert or affirm ; as, " John 

strikes the table." " Mary studies her lesson." 

What words in the following sentences are subjects? 

The dog runs. The child sleeps. The horse was driven by 
a boy. 

What words assert or affirm something of the subjects? 
What are these words called ? 

I. ATTRIBUTES OF VERBS. 
Verbs have the attributes of Voice, Mood, Tense, 
Number, and Person. 

Certain parts of the verb are called Participles. 

i. VOICE. 

Voice is that attribute of the verb which denotes 
whether the subject of the verb acts, or is acted 
upon. 

Verbs have two voices, the Active and the Passive. 

The Active Voice is that form of the verb which 
denotes that the subject acts, or does the thing men- 
tioned ; as, " John strikes the table." " The teacher 
explained the lesson." "We expect a pleasant day." 

The Passive Voice is that form of the verb which 
denotes that the subject is acted upon ; as, " The table 
is struck by John." " The lesson was explained by the 
teacher," " A pleasant day is expected by us." 

In what voice is the verb in each of the following sen- 
tences? 

We have studied our lessons. 
The sergeant drilled the soldiers. 
Poverty and distress follow a civil war. 
The soldiers were drilled by the sergeant. 



THE VERB. 57 

Good nature beautifies all objects. 

She sung a solo. 

Harry went into the garden. 

He entered the house. 

The temple of Solomon was destroyed by the Roman 
soldiers. 

The man on the lookout discovered land. 

The hope of the righteous will not fail. 

The birds flew over the house. 

The rewards which your uncle promised you will be given 
to you by your mother. 

Change the voice of the verb, where possible, in each of the 
preceding examples, and write the sentence with the verb so 
changed. 

Name other examples of verbs in the active voice. In the 
passive voice. 

II. MOOD. 

Mood, or mode, is that attribute of the verb which 
denotes the manner or way in which the assertion is 
expressed. 

Verbs have five Moods: the Indicative, the Subjunc- 
tive, the Potential, the Imperative, and the Infinitive. 

It is the office of the verb to assert or affirm something. 
If this assertion or affirmation is limited to some subject or 
nominative, the verb is said to he finite. The assertion may be 
connected with the subject in four different ways, giving rise 
to the four finite modes or moods. 1. The assertion may be ex- 
pressed directly and without limitation, and then it is in the 
Indicative mood ; as, " The boy sleeps. " 2. It may be expressed 
as a supposition, and then it is in the Subjunctive mood ; as, 
" If I were you, I would not go." 3. It may be expressed 
as a possibility, and then it is in the Potential mood; as, 
"The boy may go." 4. It may be expressed as a command, 
and then it is in the Imperative mood ; as, " Come, boy." 
Sometimes the assertion is not limited to any particular sub- 
ject, and then it is said to be in the Infinitive, that is, the un- 
limited mood; as, "To sleep." 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The Indicative Mood is that form of the verb in 
which the assertion is expressed directly and without 
limitation ; as, He writes, Horses run, The dog barks. 

The Indicative mood is also used in asking direct questions ; 
as, Does the sun shine ? Does my mother love me ? This is 
sometimes called the Interrogative form. 

The Subjunctive Mood is that form of the verb in 
which the assertion is expressed as a supposition, a wish, 
or a future contingency ; as, If it rain this afternoon, 
you must not go. I would I were a boy again. Though 
he fall, he shall not be utterly cast down. 

How does the Subjunctive form of the verb differ from the 
Indicative form ? 

The Subjunctive mood is usually preceded by a con- 
junction, such as if, though, although, unless, except, whether, 
lest. 

Sometimes, in the Past Tense, by transposing the words, 
and placing the verb or a part of it before the subject, the 
verb becomes Subjunctive without the use of a preceding con- 
junction. Thus : "Were I sure of the fact I would consent." 

The Subjunctive mood is always accompanied by another 
verb in some other mood. Without this it cannot make com- 
plete sense. Thus : " If he study diligently, he will improve." 

The Potential Mood is that form of the verb which 
expresses possibility, liberty, power, willingness, or ob- 
ligation ; as, he can write; he may write; he must write; 
you could write ; I should go ; she would go. 

The Potential mood is also used in asking questions; as, 
May I write? Must I write f 

The Imperative Mood is that form of the verb which 
is used to command, exhort, entreat, or permit ; as, Write 
the copy according to the directions ; Father, forgive us ; 
Go, if you desire it ; Come, and listen to the music. 



THE VERB. 59 

The Infinitive Mood is that form of the verb which 
is not limited to a subject, or which has no subject ; as, 
To write ; to have written ; to speak ; to be loved ; to have 
been loved. 

Name the voice and mood of each of the verbs in the fol- 
lowing sentences. 

The prisoner reached as far as his chain would allow. 

Let me go, that I may see my father before he dies. 

The moon is hidden by thick clouds. 

Cultivate peace with all men. 

Secrets confided to you should not be revealed. 

Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. 

If there be anything improper in my language, I will be 
much pleased if you will correct it. 

III. TENSE. 

Tense is that attribute of a verb by which it ex- 
presses distinctions of Time. 

There are six Tenses: the Present, the Past, the 
Future, the Present-Perfect, the Past-Perfect, and the 
Future-Perfect. 

The Present, Past, and Future are called Primary 
Tenses ; the Present-Perfect, Past-Perfect, and Future- 
Perfect are called Secondary Tenses. 

The Present Tense is that form of the verb which 
denotes simply present time ; as, I write ; The grass 
groivs. 

The present tense often expresses w T hat is habitual, uni- 
versal, or permanent; as, "The sun gives light by day, the 
moon by night;" "Charity thinketh no evil." 

When preceded by certain conjunctions, such as when, after, 
as soon as, the Present Tense sometimes conveys the idea 
of that which is yet future ; as, " He will go as soon as he is 
ready." 

The Past Tense is that form of the verb which de~ 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

notes simply past time ; as, I wrote ; He arrived yes- 
terday. 

This Tense was formerly called the Imperfect Tense. 

The Future Tense is that form of the verb which 
denotes simply future time ; as, I shall write ; I will go 
home. 

The Present-Perfect Tense is that form of the verb 
which denotes what is past and finished, but which is 
connected also with the present time ; as, I have written 
a letter this week. 

The Present-Perfect expresses what continues to the present 
time in its consequences, although we know that the period 
of the action was completed long ago ; as, " Cicero has written 
orations." We cannot in like manner say, " Cicero has written 
poems." His poems are lost, his orations still exist. Cicero, 
the poet, perished long since, but Cicero, the orator, is still ex- 
tant, and may be conceived as existing and acting in a period 
extending down to the present moment. For the same reason, 
we cannot say, " The Druids have claimed great powers," for 
they were long since extinct, and they have left no writing or 
other instrument in which such claim can be conceived as now 
set forth. We may, however, say, u Mahomet has claimed 
great powers," for the claim still exists in the Koran. An 
author is universally considered as living while his writings 
live. Hence he may be considered as having done a thing in 
a period of time not yet expired. 

When preceded by certain conjunctions, such as when, 
after, as soon as, the Present-Perfect Tense, like the Present 
often denotes something yet to come ; as, " When I have fin- 
ished my letter, I will attend to your request." 

The Past-Perfect Tense is that form of the verb 
which denotes what was past and finished before some 
other event which is also past; as, I had written the 
letter before it was called for. 

The Future-Perfect Tense is that form of the verb 



THE VERB. 61 

which denotes a future time prior to some other time 
which is itself future ; as, I shall have written the letter 
before it will be called for. 

Name the tense of each of the verbs contained in the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

I have many friends. 
He is strong in hope. 
John was hopeful of the result. 
We have studied our lessons to-day. 
Will you read so that you can be heard ? 
Washington determined to attack the enemy. 
Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor. 
Rainy and cold as it was, we were compelled to go out. 
James should have answered when his name was called. 
He had reached this decision after he came to the place. 
I shall have studied my lesson before you are prepared to 
go out. 

In what voice and mood is each verb given? 

Write sentences each containing one or more of the follow- 
ing verbs : 

Speak, hear, bring, obey, praise, blame, whistle, rejoice, de- 
ceive, betray, sleep, go, play, retire, listen. 

Remarks on the Moods and Tenses. 

1. The Number of the Tenses in the Different Moods. 

— The Indicative Mood has all six of the tenses ; the Subjunc- 
tive has two, the Present and the Past ; the Potential has four, 
the Present, the Past, the Present- Perfect, and the Past- Per- 
fect ; the Imperative has only the Present ; and the Infinitive 
has the Present and the Present-Perfect. 

2. The Tense, Person, and Number of the Imperative 
Mood. — A command, an exhortation, or an entreaty, is neces- 
sarily a present act. The Imperative mood, therefore, is 
always in the Present Tense. The command, exhortation, or 
entreaty, being spoken to some party, is necessarily in the 
Second Person. It is Singular or Plural according to cir- 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

cumstances, as its subject is usually either thou, or you, um 
derstood. Thus, " Sit still," if addressed to one person, is 
Singular, and means, " Sit thou still;" if addressed to more 
than one, it is Plural, and means, " Sit you still." Whether 
the subject of the Imperative mood is thou understood, or you, 
must be learned, in each particular case, from other words 
in the sentence. " Brethren, pray for us." Here, the word 
" brethren " show T s that more than one are addressed. There- 
fore, the verb is plural, and its subject is "you" understood. 
" Father, forgive them." Here, the word " Father" shows 
that only one is addressed. The verb, therefore, is singular, 
and its subject is " thou " understood. 

Peculiar Use of the Verbs To Have and To Be. — There 
is a peculiar usage of to have and to be that needs to be noted. 
Were is often used with a potential meaning, or in the sense 
of would be ; thus, " I' were an idiot thus to speak," that is, " I 
would be an idiot thus to speak." In like manner, had is used 
in the sense of would have; thus, " It had been good for that 
man if he had never been born," that is, " It would have been 
good." 

There is another use of had still more remarkable. It is 
where had bears the meaning simply of would; as, "I had as 
lief not be, as live to be." 

IV. PARTICIPLES. 

A Participle is that form of the verb which partakes 
of the nature both of a verb and of an adjective. 

The Participles are three, the Present, the Past or 
Perfect, and the Compound-Perfect. 

The Present Participle denotes that which is now in 
progress ; as, going, being, living, working. The Present 
participles all end in ing. 

The Past or Perfect Participle denotes that which is 
complete or finished ; as, written, stolen, added. It either 
ends in ed, or has an irregular form, as shown in the list 
of irregular verbs. 

The Compound -Perfect Participle denotes that 



THE VERB. 63 

which is finished before something else mentioned ; as, 
having written, having stolen, having added. 

The Past participle is extensively used in making the com- 
pound forms of the active voice. 

In the following examples, name the participle, tell the 
kind, and how it is used: 

The bells are ringing. 

She sat near him, writing a letter. 

Stones came rattling from the cliff. 

Mary, being disgusted, retired from the room. 

A cunning fox, prowling around a farmyard, saw some 
chickens scratching vigorously for the grain hidden among 
the chaff. 

Having concealed his valuables, he came from his hiding 
place and, approaching the visitors, desired to know their 
mission. They, surprised at his appearance, and becoming 
alarmed, left him standing in the road. 

V. NUMBER AND PERSON. 

Verbs have variations of form, to correspond with the 
number and person of their subject. These variations 
are called the Numbers and Persons of the verb. 

Verbs have two numbers. Singular and Plural; and 
three Persons, First, Second, and Third. Thus : 



Singular. 




Plural. 




First Person. 


I am. 


First Person. 


We are. 


Second Person. 


Thou art. 


Second Person. 


You are. 


Third Person. 


He is. 


Third Person. 


They are 



II. CLASSES OF VERBS. 
Verbs are divided into the following classes : Trans- 
itive, Intransitive ; Begular, Irregular : De- 
fective and Auxiliary. 

I. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 

A Transitive Verb is one which requires an objective 
case to complete the meaning ; as, James writes a letter. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

An Intransitive Verb is one which does not require 
an objective case to complete the meaning; as, John 
sleeps. • 

Explanation.— In the sentences, " James touched Peter" 
"James touched him" if the object is left out, and we say 
simply " James touched," the meaning is incomplete. 

Remarks on Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. 

1. Some verbs are used both transitively and intransitively ; 
as, " He reads well," " He reads a book." 

2. Intransitive verbs are not used in the Passive Voice : thus, 
we may say to laugh, but not to be laughed. 

3. When verbs usually intransitive are followed by certain 
prepositions, the verb and preposition sometimes form a kind 
of compound verb, which is transitive, and admits of a passive 
voice : thus, we say to laugh at a person (Active) ; to be laughed 
at by him (Passive). 

4. Verbs usually intransitive sometimes take after them an 
objective of kindred signification. In that case they are transi- 
tive, and admit of a passive voice ; as, " I run a race," "A race 
is run." 

5. Transitive verbs in English are sometimes used without 
an objective case, in a sense between the active and passive 
voices; as, "The apple tastes sweet." 

In the following sentences, state which verbs are transitive 
and which are intransitive : 

The fire burns. 

Bees make honey. 

The eagle screams. 

Foxes eat chickens. 

James caught a fish. 

Roses bloom in June. 

The boy raked the field. 

Thou shalt not destroy life. 

The eagle eats small animals. 

Iron is found in Pennsylvania. 

Tall oaks grow from little acorns. 

The hunter found the crow's nest and destroyed it. 






THE VERB. 



65 



Write sentences, each containing one or more of the follow- 
ing verbs in the active voice : 

Lead, know, see, fear, pursue, punish, contemplate, desire, 
build, scare. 

Change the verbs in the sentences you have written to the 
passive form. 

II. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 

A Regular Verb is one that forms its Past Tense and 
Past Participle by the addition of ed to its present tense ; 
as, Present, walk; Past, walked; Past Participle, walked. 

An Irregular Verb is one that does not form its Past 
Tense and Past Participle by the addition of ed to its 
present tense ; as, Present, write; Past, wrote; Past Par- 
ticiple, written. 

The Irregular Verbs. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Part. 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode. 


Am — Is, 


was, 


been. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


Awake, 


awoke, awaked, 


awaked. 


Bear (to bring forth) 


, bore, bare, 


born. 


Bear (to carry), 


bore, 


borne. 


Beat, 


beat, 


beat, beaten. 


Begin, 


began, 


begun. 


Bend, 


bended, bent, 


bended, bent. 


Bereave, 


bereaved, bereft, 


bereaved, bereft. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Bestride, 


bestrid, bestrode, 


bestrid, bestridden 


Bid, 


bid. bade, 


bid, bidden. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten, bit. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke, 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred, 

5 


bred. 



66 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Part. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Build, 


built, builded, 


built, builded. 


Burn, 


burned, burnt, 


burned, burnt. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught, catched, 


caught, catched. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chid, chidden. 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen, chose. 


Cleave (to split), 


cleft, clove, 


cleft, cloven. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Clothe, 


clothed, clad, 


clothed, clad. 


Come, 


came, 


come. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


Crow, 


crew, crowed, 


crowed. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Dare (to venture), 


dared, durst, 


dared. 


Deal, 


dealed, dealt, 


dealed, dealt. 


Dig, 


dug, digged, 


dug, digged. 


Do, 


did, 


done. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


Dream, 


dreamed, dreamt, 


dreamed, dreamt, 


Drink, 


drank, 


drunk. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


Dwell, 


dwelled, dwelt, 


dwelled, dwelt. 


Eat, 


eat, ate, 


eat, eaten. 


Fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


Feed, 


fed, 


fed. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Find, 


found, 


found. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flown. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Get, 


got, 


got, gotten. 


Gild, 


gilded, gilt, 


gilded, gilt. 





THE VERB. 


67 


'Present. 


Past. 


Past Part. 


Gird, 


girded, girt, 


girded, girt. 


Give, 


gave, 


given. 


Go, 


went, 


gone. 


Grave, 


graved, 


graven, graved. 


Grind, 


ground, 


ground. 


Grow, 


grew, 


grown. 


Hang, 


hanged, hung, 


hanged, hung. 


Have, 


had, 


had. 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


Heave, 


heaved, hove, 


heaved. 


Hew, 


hewed, 


hewed, hewn. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hid, hidden. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


Hold, 


held, 


held. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


Kneel, 


kneeled, knelt, 


kneeled, knelt. 


Knit, 


knit, knitted, 


knit, knitted. 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Lade, 


laded, 


laded, laden. 


Lay,* 


laid, 


laid. 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Lie,t 


lay, 


lain. 


Light, 


lighted, lit, 


lighted, lit. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Mean, 


meant, 


meant. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mowed, mown. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Pen (to coop), 


penned, pent, 


penned, pent. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 



* Lay (transitive), To place; to put; to cause to lie. 
f Lie (intransitive), To be at rest in a horizontal position; to recline ; 
to rest; to remain. 



68 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Part. 


Quit, 


quit, quitted, 


quit, quitted. 


Read, 


read, 


read. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rent. 


Rid, 


rid, ridded, 


rid, ridded. 


Ride, 


rode, 


ridden. 


Ring, 


rang, rung, 


rung. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


Rive, 


rived, 


rived, riven. 


Run, 


ran, run, 


run. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawed, sawn. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


Seethe, 


seethed, 


seethed, sodden. 


Sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


Send, 


sent, 


sent. 


Set,* 


set, 


set. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shaped, shapen. 


Shave, 


shaved, 


shaved, shaven. 


Shear, 


sheared, 


sheared, shorn. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Shine, 


shone, shined, 


shone, shined. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


Show, 


showed, 


shown, showed. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Shrink, 


shrunk, 


shrunk. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Sing, 


sung, sang, 


sung. 


Sink, 


sunk, sank, 


sunk. 


sit,t 


sat, 


sat. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Slide, 


slid, 


slid, slidden. 



* Set (transitive), To place; to affix ; to adjust; to plant; (intransi- 
tive), To fall below the horizon, as the sun. 

t Sit : To be in any local position ; to rest ; to hold a session ; to incubate. 





THE VERB. 




Present 


Past. 


Past Part. 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Slit, 


slit, slitted, 


slit, slitted. 


Smell, 


smelled, smelt, 


smelled, smelt. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten, smit. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sowed, sown. 


Speak, 


spoke, spake, 


spoken. 


Speed, 


sped, speeded, 


sped, speeded. 


Spell, 


spelled, spelt, 


spelled, spelt. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


Spill, 


spilled, spilt, 


spilled, spilt. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


Spit, 


spit, spat, 


spit. 


Split, 


split, splitted, 


split, splitted. 


Spoil, 


spoiled, spoilt, 


spoiled, spoilt. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Spring, 


sprung, sprang, 


sprung. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Stave, 


staved, stove, 


staved, stove. 


Stay, 


stayed, staid, 


stayed, staid. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Stink, 


stunk, 


stunk. 


Strew, 


strewed, 


strewed, strewn. 


Stride, 


strid, strode, 


strid, stridden. 


Strike, 


struck, 


struck, stricken. 


String, 


strung, 


strung. 


Strive, 


strove, 


striven. 


Swear, 


swore, 


sworn. 


Sweat, 


sweat, sweated, 


sweat, sweated. 


Sweep, 


swept, 


swept. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swelled, swollen 


Swim, 


swam, swum, 


swum. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung. 


Take, 


took, 


taken. 


Teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 



69 



70 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Part 


Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


Thrive, 


thrived, 


thrived, thriven. 


Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trod, trodden. 


Wax, 


waxed, 


waxed, waxen. 


Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Weave, 


wove, 


woven, wove. 


Weep, 


wept, 


wept. 


Wet, 


wet, wetted, 


wet, wetted. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Wind, 


wound, 


wound. 


Work, 


worked, wrought, 


worked, wrought, 


Wring, 


wrung, 


wrung. 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 



Fill the blanks with the proper verb sit or set in the follow- 
ing sentences : 

down and rest. 

A hen on eggs. 

We on a horse. 

We around the table. 

The sun at five o'clock. 

We the duck on her nest. 

He down to take a short rest. 

The boys by the lake watching the fish. 

III. DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

A Defective Verb is one that is not used in all the 
Moods and Tenses ; as, must, ought, quoth. 

IV. AUXILIARY VERBS. 

An Auxiliary Verb is one which helps to form the 
Moods and Tenses of other verbs. 

The auxiliary verbs are, shall, may, can, must, be, do, 
have, and will. 

Give the meaning of each of these auxiliary verbs. 



THE VERB. 71 

Remarks on the Auxiliary Verbs. 

1. Auxiliary, or helping verbs, are so called because by 
their help the other verbs form most of their moods and tenses. 

2. Be, do, have, and sometimes will, are also used as principal 
verbs; as, they may be here;, they do nothing; they have 
nothing ; they will it to be so. As principal verbs, they have 
all the moods and tenses which other verbs have. 

3. Be, as an auxiliary, is used in all its moods, tenses, num- 
bers, and persons, in forming the passive voice of other verbs ; 
as, I am loved, I was loved, I have been loved. 

4. Have, do, will, shall, may, can, as Auxiliaries, are used in 
only two forms, and must in only one form : 

Present. Have, do, will, shall, can, may, must. 
Past. Had, did, would, should, could, might. 

5. These forms taken by themselves may be considered as 
the Present and Past, but they do not always form the present 
and past when in combination with the other Auxiliaries or 
with the principal verb. 

6. Shall, may, can, and must are defective, having only the 
tenses given above, and are never used except as Auxiliaries. 

What is the meaning or intent of the verb in each of the 
following sentences : 

Shall I go? 

Can she go ? 

Will you go ? 

May I come ? 

Must friends part ? 

Could you stand the fatigue ? 

Should he be permitted to speak ? 

I might come if you would ask consent. 

III. CONJUGATION. 

The Conjugation of a verb is the orderly arrange- 
ment of its voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and persons. 

The verb "To Be" is irregular and intransitive. 



72 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Conjugation of the verb To Be. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 





Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


I am. 


1. We are. 


2. 


Thou art. 


2. You are. 


3. 


He is. 


3. They are. 
Past Tense. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


I was. 


1. We were. 


2. 


Thou wast. 


2. You were. 


3. 


He was. 


3. They were. 
Future Tense. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


I shall be. 


1. We shall be. 


2. 


Thou wilt be. 


2. You will be. 


3. 


He will be. 


3. They will be, 



Present- Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been. 1. We have been. 

2. Thou hast been. 2. You have been. 

3. He has been. 3. They have been. 

Past-Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been. 1. We had been. 

2. Thou hadst been. 2. You had been. 

3. He had been. 3. They had been. 

Future-Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 

2. Thou wilt have been. 2. You will have been. 

3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. 







SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 


1. 


Singular. 
If I be. 


Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. If we be. 


2. 


If thou be. 


2. If you be. 


3. 


If he be. 


3. If they be. 



THE VERB. 73 



Past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were. 1. If we were. 

2. If thou wert. 2. If you were. 

3. If he were. 3. If they were. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be. 1. We may be. 

2. Thou mayst be. 2. You may be. 

3. He may be. 3. They may be. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be. 1. We might be. 

2. Thou mightst be. 2. You might be. 

3. He might be. 3. They might be. 

Present-Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been. 1. We may have been. 

2. Thou mayst have been. 2. You may have been. 

3. He may have been. 3. They may have been. 

Past-Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been. 1. We might have been. 

2. Thou mightst have been. 2. You might have been. 

3. He might have been. 3. They might have been. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

2. Be, or be thou. 2. Be, or be you. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. To be. Present-Perfect. To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Being. Past or Perfect. Been. 

Compound-Perfect. Having been. 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remarks on the Conjugation. 

1. In the formation of the Futures, we have two Auxiliaries, 
shall and will. For the expression of simple futurity, we use 
shall in the First Person, and will in the Second and Third 
Persons, as given in the table. On the other hand, by using 
will in the First Person, we express the determination of the 
speaker for himself and associates ; by using shall in the Second 
and Third Persons, we express the determination of the 
speaker as to the actions or states of others. In other words, 
shall in the First Person, and will in the Second and Third 
Persons, foretell or express a future action. Will in the First 
Person, and shall in the Second and Third Persons, express a 
promise or a threat. 

2. The singular form, thou art, is now used only in acts 
of worship, or on other solemn occasions. In ordinary dis- 
course, in addressing one person, we say you are, you were, etc. r 
the meaning being singular, but the form plural. 

3. In the Third Person, the subject of the verb may be any 
of the personal pronouns, he, she, it; any of the relative pro- 
nouns, who, which, what, that, etc., or any noun. For conveni- 
ence of recitation, one subject only is inserted. 

4. In the Potential mood the auxiliary may be — 
In the Present tense, may, can, or must ; 

In the Past tense, might, could, would, or should ; 

In the Present- Perfect tense, may have, can have, or must 
have ; 

In the Past-Perfect tense, might have, could have, would have, 
or should have. 

5. In conjugating the Subjunctive mood, the conjunction 
before the verb may be if, though, although, unless, except, whether, 
lest, etc. For convenience in recitation, one conjunction only 
is used. It may also be conjugated in the Past tense by omit- 
ting the conjunction and transposing the nominative and verb. 
Thus : were I, wert thou, were he ; were we, were you, were 
they. 

Exercise. — Fill the blanks with shall or will: 

I set the table ? 

I go to town this afternoon, but my sister go 

to-morrow. 



THE VERB. 75 

How old you be in October ? 

Mary is determined that the boy help her. 

I call the boys ? 

We have to run to catch the train. 

She meet you at her cousin's house. 

I call for you as I pass the house ? 

If you come into the next room, I think we see 

him. 

I be permitted to speak to the lady ? 

I drown, nobody help me. 

we be contented ? 



You be satisfied. 

I go to the circus. 

There be no danger as father go. 

When I receive the money ? 

What dress I wear? 

They not remain in the house. 

you take part in the exercises ? 

I wonder if Lucy remember to tell her mother. 

Do you think we have a good time ? 

Conjugate the verb " to be " through the Indicative mood, 
using "she" in the third person singular. 

Conjugate the verb through the Indicative mood, using " it " 
in the third person singular. 

Conjugate the verb through the Indicative mood, using " the 
man " for the subject in the singular, and " the men " for the 
subject in the plural. 

Conjugate the verb through the Subjunctive mood, using 
"though" instead of "if." 

Conjugate it in like manner, using any of the other conjunc- 
tions named. 

Conjugate it in the Potential mood, Present tense, using 
" can " instead of " may." Conjugate it, using " must." 

Conjugate it in the Past tense, using "could;" using 
"would;" using "should." 

Conjugate it in the Present-Perfect tense, using " can have ; " 
using " must have." 

Conjugate it in the Past-Perfect tense, using " could have ; " 
using " would have ; " using " should have." 



76 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Conjugate the verbs given by using nouns as subjects when 
possible, and completing the sentence when the verb is transi- 
tive, etc. 

Write the forms of conjugation in each of the moods and 
tenses, using a different verb for each number and person of 
each of the tenses of the several moods. 

Conjugation of the verb To Love. 

I. ACTIVE VOICE. 



Singular. 

1. I love. 

2. Thou lovest. 

3. He loves. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We love. 

2. You love. 

3. They love. 



Singular. 

1. I loved. 

2. Thou lovedst. 

3. He loved. 



Past Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We loved. 

2. You loved. 

3. They loved. 



Singular. 

1. I shall love. 

2. Thou wilt love. 

3. He will love. 



Future Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We shall love. 

2. You will love. 

3. They will love. 



Present-Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have loved. 1. We have loved. 

2. Thou hast loved. 2. You have loved. 

3. He has loved. 3. They have loved, 



Singular. 
1. I had loved. 



Past-Perfect Tense. 

Plural. 
1. We had loved. 



2. Thou hadst loved. 

3. He had loved. 



2. You had loved. 

3. They had loved. 



THE VERB. 77 

Future-Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 

2. Thou wilt have loved. 2. You will have loved. 

3. He will have loved. 3. They will have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love. 1. If we love. 

2. If thou love. 2. If you love. 

3. If he love. 3. If they love. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I loved. 1. If we loved. 

2. If thou loved. 2. If you loved. 

3. If he loved. 3. If they loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may love. 1. We may love. 

2. Thou mayst love. 2. You may love. 

3. He may love. 3. They may love. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might love. 1. We might love. 

2. Thou mightst love. 2. You might love. 

3. He might love. 3. They might love. 

Present-Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have loved. 1. We may hav^ loved. 

2. Thou mayst have loved. 2. You may have loved. 

3. He may have loved. 3. They may have loved. 

Past-Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have loved. 1. We might have loved. 

2. Thou mightst have loved. 2. You might have loved. 

3. He might have loved. 3. They might have loved. 



78 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 



Love, or love thou. 



Plural. 
Love, or love you. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. To love. Present-Perfect. To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Loving. Past or Perfect. Loved. 

Compound-Perfect. Having loved. 

II. PASSIVE VOICE. 

The Passive Voice of a verb is formed by placing before 
its Past Participle the various moods, tenses, numbers, and 
persons of the verb To be. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



r. 



1. I am loved. 

2. Thou art loved. 

3. He is loved. 

Singular. 

1. I was loved. 

2. Thou wast loved. 

3. He was loved. 



Singular. 

1. I shall be loved. 

2. Thou wilt be loved. 

3. He will be loved. 



Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We are loved. 

2. You are loved. 

3. They are loved. 

Past Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We were loved. 

2. You were loved. 

3. They were loved. 

Future Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We shall be loved. 

2. You will be loved. 

3. They will be loved. 



Present-Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 

2. Thou hast been loved. 2. You have been loved. 

3. He has been loved. 3. They have been loved. 



THE VERB. 79 

Past-Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been loved. 1. We had been loved. 

2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. You had been loved. 
8. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved. 

Future-Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been loved. 1. We shall have been loved. 

2. Thou wilt have been loved. 2. You will have been loved. 

3. He will have been loved. 3. They will have been loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



1. 


Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

If I be loved. 1. If we be loved. 


2. 


If thou be loved. 2. If you be loved. 


3. 


If he be loved. 3. If they be loved. 


1. 


Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

If I were loved. 1. If we were loved. 


2. 


If thou wert loved. 2. If you were loved. 


3. 


If he were loved. 3. If they were loved 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be loved. 1. We may be loved. 

2. Thou mayst be loved. 2. You may be loved. 

3. He may be loved. 3. They may be loved. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be loved. 1. We might be loved. 

2. Thou mightst be loved. 2. You might be loved. 

3. He might be loved. 3. They might be loved. 

Present-Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been loved. 1. We may have been loved. 

2. Thou mayst have been 2. You may have been loved. 

loved. 

3. He may have been loved. 3. They may have been loved. 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Past-Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been loved. 1. We might have been loved. 

2. Thou mightst have been 2. You might have been 

loved. loved. 

3. He might have been loved. 3. They might have been 

loved. 

IMPEKATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
2. Be loved, or be thou loved. 2. Be loved, or be you loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. To be loved. Present- Perfect. To have been loved. 

PAETICIPLES. 

Present. Being loved. Past or Perfect Loved. 

Compound-Perfect. Having been loved. 

III. PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

The Progressive Form of a verb is that form which 
represents the action as in progress, or as incomplete. 

The Progressive form of any verb is made by placing before 
its Present Participle the various moods, tenses, numbers, and 
persons of the verb to be. Thus : I am writing, I was writing, 
I shall be writing. 

Exercises in the Progressive Form. 

Conjugate the verb "sing" through all the tenses of the In- 
dicative mood, in the Progressive form. 

Conjugate "know" through the Subjunctive mood, Pro- 
gressive form. 

Conjugate " write " through the Potential mood, Progressive 
form. 

Conjugate " stand " through the Imperative and Infinitive 
moods, Progressive form. 



THE VERB. 



81 



IV. EMPHATIC FORM. 

The Emphatic Form of a verb is that in which the 
assertion is expressed with emphasis. 

The Emphatic Form of a verb is made by placing before it 
the verb do as an auxiliary. 

The Emphatic Form is used only in the Present and Past 
tenses of the Indicative and Subjunctive moods, Active voice, 
and in the Imperative mood, both Active and Passive. 



Conjugation of the Verb To Love, in the Emphatic 

Form. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I do love. 


Plural. 
1. We do love. 


2. Thou dost love. 


2. You do love. 


3. He does love. 


3. They do love. 


Singular. 

1. I did love. 


Past Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We did love. 


2. Thou didst love. 


2. You did love 


3. He did love. 


3. They did love. 


SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 


Singular. 

1. If I do love. 


Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. If we do love. 


2. If thou do love. 


2. If you do love. 


3. If he do love. 


3. If they do love. 


Singular. 

1. If I did love. 


Past Tense. 

Plural. 

1. If we did love. 


2. If thou did love. 


2. If you did love. 


3. If he did love. 


3. If they did love. 




IMPERATIVE. 


Active — Present Tense. 


Singular. Do (thou^ 


1 love. Plural. Do (you) love 
6 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Passive — Present Tense. 
Singular. Do (thou) be loved. Plural. Do (you) be loved. 

The participle of a transitive verb, with its object, is called 
a participial phrase, and is adjectival in character. 

The infinitive form of a transitive verb is called an infinitive 
phrase, and is adverbial or adjectival in character. 

A verb is conjugated negatively by using the adverb " not " 
in each of the persons and numbers. 

Exercises. — In the following sentences and paragraphs, 
name each part of speech, its class, its properties, and its use. 
State what each article and each adjective modifies. Name 
the word to which each pronoun refers. Name the voice, 
mood, tense, number, and person of each verb. Name the 
gender, number, person, and case of each noun and pro- 
noun. Name the subject of each verb. Name the phrases, 
and tell the kind, its use, and what it modifies. 

If he acquire riches, they will corrupt his mind. 
Though he is high, he hath respect to the lowly. 
Despise not any condition, lest it happen to be thine own. 

A witty punster may afford amusement to persons, but 
amusement is not the business of life, though it tends ever so 
much to relieve the mind. Therefore, do not consider him a 
model worthy of imitation. 

My son, wert thou a father, thou couldst understand the 
feelings of him who now mourns over the wrong which thou 
hast committed. Had I been thy son, I think I should not 
only have been grieved on account of that w r hich I had done, 
but also should have regretted that I had caused sorrow in 
the breast of him who loved me so tenderly. 

The miser will will his property to those who will perhaps 
use it for sinful purposes. Had he had less avarice, his happi- 
ness would have been increased. Do not do as he does, lest 
thou, like him, become a wretched man, and have to say, "I 
have been heaping up riches all my life, but I have not been 
increasing my happiness. Had I been adding to the happi- 
ness of others, and laying up treasures where moth and rust 
do not corrupt, I should have been employing myself better 
and saving my soul." 



THE VERB. 
TOPICAL OUTLINE. 



83 



^O^OO- 



Voice 



Mood 



THE VERB. 

Kegular, Irregular, Transitive/ Intransitive, Auxiliary, 

Defective. 

( Active, 

\ Passive. 

Indicative, 
Subjunctive, 
<J Potential, 
Imperative, 
Infinitive. 

r Present, 
Past, 
Future, 

Present-Perfect, 
Past-Perfect, 

Future-Perfect. 

>». 

c Present, 
I Perfect, 
I Compound-Perfect. 

Regular in all moods and tenses, 
Progressive, 
Emphatic, 
Negative, 
k Interrogative. 



Tense 



Participle, 



Conjugation. < 



-00>©<CH»- 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

What is a verb? Give an example. What attributes do 
verbs have ? What is a participle ? Why so called ? How 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

many classes of participles are there? Name them. What 
does each denote ? Give examples of each. What is voice ? 
How many voices do verbs have ? Name them. Define each. 
Give examples of each. 

What is mood? How many moods do verbs have? De- 
fine each. Give examples of each. Why is the infinitive so 
called ? The subjunctive ? What is tense ? How many tenses 
do verbs have? Define each. Give examples of each. Do 
verbs have number and person ? Do they indicate in them- 
selves the idea of number or person ? Whence then derived ? 

Define transitive verb. Intransitive verb. What kind of 
verbs are used in the passive voice ? Can a verb be used both 
transitively and intransitively? Give examples. What is a 
regular verb? An irregular verb? Give examples. Define 
impersonal verb. Defective verb. Auxiliary verb. Give ex- 
amples. Why so called? Name the auxiliary verbs. How 
used ? What are defective verbs ? Why so called ? Give ex- 
amples. What is meant by conjugation? Give an example. 
What auxiliaries are peculiar to the potential mood ? What 
auxiliary is peculiar to certain tenses ? How is the passive 
voice formed ? How is the emphatic form of a verb made ? 

Write a composition on Verbs, using the Topical Outline as 
a basis. 



VI. THE ADVERB. 

An Adverb is a word used to modify a Verb, an 
Adjective, or another Adverb; as, He writes rapidly, 
A very fast horse, He wrote very rapidly. 

Examples. — Come here instantly and answer me more re- 
spectfully, or you will receive a very severe correction. 

" Here " modifies the verb " come/' it tells where you are to 
come. 

" Instantly " also modifies " come," it tells when you are to 
come. 

" Respectfully " modifies the verb " answer," it tells in what 
manner you are to answer. 



THE ADVERB. 85 

"More " modifies the adverb " respectfully," it tells how re- 
spectfully you are to answer. 

" Very " modifies the adjective " severe/' it tells how severe 
the punishment will be. 

Remarks on Adverbs. 

1. Adverbs are not necessary parts of speech, as their 
meaning may always be expressed by other parts of speech. 
They usually express in one word what would otherwise 
require several words. Here, for instance, means "in this 
place.' ' 

2. Some of the adverbs appear to be formed by the combi- 
nation of two or more words, which have gradually coalesced 
into one. Thus, bravely is an abbreviation of brave-ftfce, wisely, 
of wise-like, happily of happy-ft&e. Others again are com- 
posed of nouns, and the letter a used for at, on, etc. ; as, aside, 
ahead, abroad, ashore, aground, afloat. 

3. Some adverbs perform at the same time the office of 
adverbs and of conjunctions; as, "They will come when they 
are ready." Here, " when " declares the time of the action, 
therefore it is an adverb ; it also connects the two verbs, and 
therefore it is a conjunction. Such adverbs are called by some 
grammarians, conjunctive adverbs; by others, adverbial con- 
junctions. The most common of them are, when, where, 
whither, whenever, wherever, then, how, whence, why, as before, 
after, until. 

4. The adverb there is often used as a mere expletive, with- 
out apparently any signification of its own, as in the sentence, 
"There was a man sent from God, whose name was John." 

5. Some words are used sometimes as adverbs, and some- 
times as adjectives. Among these are the following : little, less, 
least, better, best, much, more, most, no, only, well, ill, still, first, next, 
hard, fast, early, late, daily. If any of these words modifies a 
noun, it is an adjective; but if it modifies a verb, an adjective, 
or another adverb, it is an adverb. 

Comparison of Adverbs. 
Many Adverbs are varied by comparison. 
Some Adverbs are compared by adding er and est to 
the Positive ; as, soon, sooner y soonest 



86 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Adverbs ending in ly are compared by prefixing more 
and most, less and least ; as, happily, more happily, most 
happily ; less happily, least happily. 

Irregular Comparison. 



Positive. 

Well 


Comparative. 

better 


Superlative. 
best 


111 


worse 


worst 


Badly 
Much 
Far 


worse 

more 

farther 


worst 

most 

farthest, 



Classes of Adverbs. 

Adverbs are divided into classes, according to their significa- 
tion. The most important of these classes are — 

1. Adverbs of Manner or Quality ; as, well, ill, swiftly, 
smoothly, truly, and many others formed from adjectives by 
adding the termination ly. This is by far the most numer- 
ous class of adverbs. 

2. Adverbs of Place ; as, here, there, where, hither, thither, 
whither, henee, thence, whence, somewhere, nowhere. 

3. Adverbs of Time ; as, now, then, when, ever, never, soon, 
often, seldom, lately. 

4. Adverbs of Quantity ; as, much, little, sufficiently, enough, 
scarcely. 

5. Adverbs of Direction ; as, downward, upward, forward, 
backward, homeward, heavenward, hitherward, thitherward. 

6. Adverbs of Number, Order, etc. (including all those 
formed from the Numeral Adjectives) ; as, first, secondly, thirdly; 
once, twice, thrice ; singly, doubly, triply. 

7. Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation ; as, yes, no, 
verily, indeed, nay, nowise, doubtless. 

8. Adverbs of Interrogation ; as, how, why, when, where, 
whither, whence. 

9. Adverbs of Comparison; as, more, most, less, least, 
better, best, very, exceedingly, nearly, almost. 



THE ADVERB. 87 

10. Adverbs of Uncertainty ; as, perchance, perhaps, per- 
adventure. 

Write sentences, each containing one or more of the con- 
junctive adverbs. 

Show by sentences how the words named in paragraph 5, 
page 85, may be used as adjectives and also as adverbs. 

Compare the adverbs freely, wisely, soon, long, earnestly, 
scarcely, truly. 

Show that they are adverbs by using them in sentences 
and telling what they modify. 

Exercises. — In the following sentences, name the part of 
speech of each word, its class, its attributes, and its use. 
Name each verb used and give its subject. Name the articles, 
adjectives, and adverbs used as modifiers, and tell what they 
modify. 

Softly, slowly, toll the bell. 

He was absent twice in one week. 

I know a spot where the wild rose blooms. 

We had nearly reached our destination when the sun set. 

You take my life, when you do take the means whereby I 
live. 

Night's candles are burnt out, and jocund day stands tip- 
toe on the misty mountain top. 

When the water was hot enough, he boiled the herbs in it 
thoroughly and made the tea sufficiently strong. 

The wind bloweth where it listeth, and thou hearest the 
sound thereof, but can'st not tell whence it cometh and 
whither it goeth. 

This idle boy was the least attentive of the scholars, and 
studied least. He therefore received the least amount of 
benefit. Better boys will behave better and reap a better 
reward. 

There was no author who spoke more fluently. Thrice was 
he applauded. Turn your eye whither you would, you might 
see persons attentively listening. Seldom was such an atten- 
tive multitude assembled in our much too quiet village. 

Write the preceding sentences, using other adverbs instead 
of those given. 



88 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



TOPICAL OUTLINE. 

»oXKo« 

THE ADVERB. 

Positive, 
Comparative, 
Superlative , 
Irregular. 



Comparison 



Classes. 1 . — Conjunctive, 



r Manner, 



2 A 



Place, 

Time, 

Quantity, 

Direction, 

Number, 

Uncertainty, etc. 



>>©<Oo- 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

What is an adverb? Give examples illustrating all its uses. 
What is a conjunctive adverb? What is it sometimes called? 
Why so called ? Give examples. 

Are adverbs compared ? How ? Give some irregular com- 
parisons. Into how many classes are adverbs divided ? Give 
the names of the classes. Name three adverbs of each of the 
classes. 

Write a composition on Adverbs, using the Topical Outline 
as a basis. 

«K)>^00 

VII. THE CONJUNCTION. 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, sen- 
tences, and parts of sentences ; as, John and James 
study; John writes and James reads; He is neither 
strong in body nor sound in mind. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 89 

The following are the principal Conjunctions : also, 
although, and, as, because, both, but, either, for, if, lest, 
neither, nor, or, since, than, that, then, therefore, though, 
unless, wherefore, whether, yet. 

Conjunctions are divided into three classes — Co-ordinate 
Conjunctions, Subordinate Conjunctions, and Correlative or 
Corresponding Conjunctions. 

A Co-ordinate Conjunction connects sentences or parts of 
sentences of equal rank. The principal co-ordinate conjunc- 
tions are and, but, nor, or, yet. 

A Subordinate Conjunction connects parts of sentences of 
unequal rank. The principal subordinate conjunctions are 
as, because, except, if, provided, than, that, unless. 

Co-ordinate Conjunctions join the parts of compound sen- 
tences or phrases. 

Subordinate Conjunctions join the parts of complex sen- 
tences. 

Some conjunctions are used in pairs. Such conjunctions 
are called Correlative or Corresponding Conjunctions. The prin- 
cipal Correlative Conjunctions are as — so, although — yet, both — 
and, either — or, neither — nor, whether — or, if — then, though — yet. 

Sometimes the connection of the words or sentences is 
made, not by any one conjunction, but by two or more con- 
junctions, not correlatives, taken together. Such combina- 
tions of words are called Complex Conjunctions. The principal 
Complex Conjunctions are as if, as well as, but that, except that, 
forasmuch as, inasmuch as, even though. 

All conjunctions are used to connect, but all connectives 
are not conjunctions — conjunctive adverbs and relative pro- 
nouns and prepositions are used as connectives. 

When conjunctions connect words, the words so connected 
must be the same parts of speech, that is a verb and a verb, 
an adjective and an adjective, etc., except that nouns and 
pronouns may be connected by a conjunction. 

Exercises. — In the following sentences, name the part of 
speech of each word, its class, its attributes, and its use. 
Name the conjunctions, and tell what they connect: 

Any coward can fight a battle when he is sure of winning ; 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

but give me the man who has the pluck to fight when he is 
sure of losing. 

Unless a man lacks virtue, whether he is humble in rank or 
poor in purse, he is worthy of respect and esteem. Yet there 
are some who, notwithstanding their wealth and the advan- 
tages of fortune, are deemed respectable, though their vicious 
habits should subject them to contempt. These shun the 
virtuous poor, lest they might degrade themselves in their 
own estimation. But they forget that they might be improved 
by intercourse with their virtuous but poor brethren. 

Insert proper conjunctions in the following paragraphs : 

I shall need an umbrella, it rain to-morrow ; 

it be a clear day, I shall not need it, I never use it to pro- 
tect me from the sun. 

The colonel remained at his post, he was near fainting 

from the loss of blood the pain of his wounds. He de- 
clared no one else should stand by the flag ; he would 

protect it while he had life strength left. Faithfully 

heroically he kept his word. 



Classes. 



TOPICAL OUTLINE. 

frOj^OO 

THE CONJUNCTION. 

Co-ordinate, 

Subordinate, 
j Correlative or Corresponding, 
1 Compound. 



-*oJ^JO<>- 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

What is a conjunction? Give examples of its different 
uses. Name the principal conjunctions. Into what classes 
divided? Give the use of a co-ordinate conjunction. A sub- 



THE PREPOSITION. 91 

ordinate conjunction. What is a correlative or corresponding 
conjunction? A complex conjunction? Give examples of 
each kind, and illustrate its use by appropriate sentences. 
Write a composition on Conjunctions, using the Topical 
Outline as a basis: 



-<k£©<o<^ 



VIII. THE PREPOSITION. 

A Preposition is a word placed before a noun or 
a pronoun to show its relation to some other word ; as, 
He writes with a pen ; He lives in a tent ; A man of 
wisdom. 

The principal relations indicated by Prepositions are 
time, place, cause, possession, manner, etc. 

Simple Prepositions. 

The Simple Prepositions are nineteen : after, at, by, 
down, for, from, in, of, on, over, past, round, since, 
through, till, to, under, up, with. 

Compound Prepositions. 

The following Compound Prepositions are formed by pre- 
fixing a to some other word : about, above, across, against, along, 
amid, amidst, among, amongst, around, athwart. 

The prefix a, which occurs in these and so many other 
English compounds, represents a variety of small words, 
such as at, of, in, on, to. In the compound prepositions, it 
usually represents on or in. The other part of the compound 
is some noun, adjective, adverb, or other preposition. 

The following Compound Prepositions are formed by pre- 
fixing be to some other words : be/ore, behind, beloiv, beneath, 
beside or besides, between or betwixt, beyond. 

The following Compound Prepositions are formed by uniting 
without change two prepositions, or a preposition and an ad- 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

verb ; into, throughout, toward, towards, underneath, unto, upon, 
within, without. 

Write sentences, each containing one or more of the simple 
and compound prepositions named. 

A preposition with its related word is called a prepositional 
phrase. Phrases of this kind are adjectival or adverbial, and 
modify nouns, adjectives, verbs, or adverbs after the manner 
of adjectives and adverbs. 

Exercises. — In the following paragraphs, name the part of 
speech of each word, its class, its attributes, and its use. Se- 
lect the prepositional phrases, and tell whether they modify 
as adjectives or as adverbs: 

In the morning of a sunny Sabbath day, the village children, 
with happy faces, were on their way to the house of God. The 
sun that looked down from above upon them, the blue sky 
over them, and the flowery earth beneath their feet, were not 
more brilliant than the glance of their eyes. Hand in hand 
they went along the path leading to the church, with praise 
upon their tongues, and gratitude reigning within their hearts. 

Fitz James was brave ; though to his heart 
The life-blood thrilled with sudden start, 
He manned himself with dauntless air, 
Returned the chief his haughty stare, 
His back against a rock he bore, 
And firmly placed his foot before ; — 
Come one, come all ! this rock shall fly 
From its firm base as soon as I. 



TOPICAL OUTLINE. 
THE PREPOSITION. 

Classes. / ^ im P le > J 
I Compound. 



THE INTERJECTION. 93 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

What is a preposition ? Name some of the relations indi- 
cated. Name the simple prepositions. How are the com- 
pound prepositions formed ? Name those formed by prefix- 
ing a. Name those formed by prefixing be. Name those 
formed by uniting two prepositions. What is a prepositional 
phrase ? 

Write a composition on Prepositions, using the Topical 
Outline as a basis. 

ooX^Oo 

IX. THE INTERJECTION. 

An Interjection is a word used in making sudden 
exclamations ; as, oh ! ah ! alas ! 

The principal Interjections are, adieu , ah, aha, alack, alas, 
begone, ha, hail, hallo, hark, he, hist, ho, hum, hush huzza, lo, 0, 
oh, pshaw, see. 

" O " is used before a noun, and is not followed directly by 
any mark of punctuation. The exclamation point is used at 
the end of the expression. 

" Oh " is an interjection denoting emotion, pleasurable or 
otherwise, and the exclamation point follows it. 

Write sentences, each containing one or more of the in- 
terjections. 

WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF 

SPEECH. 

As, meaning because, or since, is a Conjunction. Example : As 
the wind was favorable, we set sail. It is also a part of 
the Correlative Conjunction as — so, and of several Com- 
plex Conjunctions, as well as, etc. 
As, in all other cases, is an Adverb. 

Before, After, Till, and Until, when followed by a noun or 
a pronoun in the objective case, are Prepositions. Ex- 
amples : 

Come before dinner. 
Come after dinner 
Wait till midnight. 
Wait until your turn. 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Before, After, Till, and Until, when not followed by a noun 

or a pronoun in the objective case, are Adverbs. Ex- 
amples : 
Come before I have dined. 
Come after I have dined. 
Wait till I have dined. 
Both is an Adjective, when it means the two ; as, Both shoes 

need mending. 
Both is a Conjunction in all other cases ; as, I both love and 

respect him. 
But is a Preposition, when it means except; as, He lost all 

his books but his dictionary. 
But is an Adverb, when it means only ; as, I but touched 

him and he cried. 
But is a Conjunction in all other instances. 
Either is a Distributive Adjective Pronoun, when it means 

one of the two ; as, Either of the boys may do it. 
Either is a Conjunction in all other cases. 
Neither is a Distributive Adjective Pronoun, when it means 

not one of the two. 
Neither is a Conjunction in all other cases. Give an ex- 
ample. 
For is a Conjunction, when it means because, and is used in 

giving a reason; as, I obey him, for he is my father, 

that is, because He is my father. 
For is a Preposition in all other cases. Give an example. 
Since, meaning for the reason that, is a Conjunction; as, Since 

it is your wish, I will certainly do it. 
Since, when placed before a noun denoting a period of time, is 

a Preposition ; as, I have had no food since Monday, 
Since, in other cases, is an Adverb. Give an example. 
Then, meaning in that case, or therefore, is a Conjunction ; as, 

If all this be so, then I am right. 
Then, in all other instances, is an Adverb. Give an example. 
That is a Relative Pronoun, when either who, whom, or which 

may be used in its place ; as, He is the wisest man that 

lives in our village. 
That is a Demonstrative Adjective Pronoun, when the may be 

used instead of it ; as, That house which I see. 
That is a Conjunction in all other cases ; as, He wears warm 



DERIVATION OF WORDS. 95 

clothes that he may not catch cold. Here, who, whom, 

which, or the, could not be used for that. 
What is a Relative Pronoun, when that which or those which 

can be used in its stead ; as, Eat what is set before you. 

That is, Eat that which is set before you. 
What is an Interrogative Pronoun, when used to ask a ques- 
tion ; as, What do you see ? 
What is an Adjective Pronoun, when joined with a noun, but 

not asking a question ; as, What wonders he performed. 

He gave what money he had to the poor. 
What, when uttered as a mere exclamation, and to denote 

surprise, is an Interjection; as, What! abuse your 

mother ! 
While, meaning to pass or spend time, is a Verb; as, They 

managed to while away the hour very pleasantly. 
While, meaning a portion of time, is a Noun ; as, Let us sing 

a while. 
While, meaning during the time that, is an Adverb ; as, The 

act was done while I was absent. 
Yet, meaning nevertheless, notwithstanding, is a Conjunction; 

as, Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 
Yet, meaning up to a certain time, or over and above, is an Ad- 
verb ; as, Has the boy come yet f I will give you yet one 

more reason. 

DERIVATION OF WORDS. 
By the Derivation of words is meant tracing them 
to their original form and meaning. 

A Primitive word is a word in its original form ; as, good, 
man, see, run. 

A Derivative word is a word formed from another by some 
change in its termination, or by the addition of some letters at 
the beginning or end of the word; as, goodness, manly, foresee, 
outrun. 

When the added letters make by themselves a word, the 
word so formed is called a compound word. 

When such a compound is in common use, a hyphen is not 
used between the parts ; as, beehive, policeman, railroad. 

When the compound is an unusual one, or one not in gen- 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

eral use, a hyphen should be used between the parts ; as, pear- 
orchard, man-of-war, good-natured. 

A letter or a syllable placed at the beginning of a word is 
called a prefix. 

A letter or a syllable placed at the end of a word is called 
an affix or suffix. 

The Prefixes are usually prepositions, and belong to three 
principal classes : the Saxon, the Latin, and the Greek. 

I. PREFIXES OF SAXON ORIGIN. 

A signifies on or in ; as, ashore, that is, on shore. 

Be signifies about ; as, oestir, that is, stir about ; also, for or 
before; as, bespeak, that is, to speak for or before. It has also 
several other meanings. 

For denies ; as, bid, forbid (bid not to do a thing). 

Fore signifies before; as, see, foresee. 

Mis signifies defect or error ; as, take, mistake. 

Over denotes superiority or excess ; as, done, overdone. 

Out signifies excess or superiority ; as, run, outrun. 

Un before an adjective signifies not; as, worthy, imworthy ; 
before a verb it signifies the undoing of the act expressed by 
the verb ; as, tie, imtie. 

Up denotes motion upward; as, start, upstart; and also sub- 
version ; as, set, upset. 

With signifies against, from ; as, stand, withstand ; draw, with- 
draw. 

II. PREFIXES OF LATIN ORIGIN. 

A (ab or abs) signifies from or away ; as, abstract, to draw 
away. 

Ad signifies to, at; as, adjoin, to join to (Ad assumes different 
forms according to the first letter of the root to which it is pre- 
fixed ; as, ascend, accede, a/fect, aggrieve, etc.). 

Ambi from ambo, both, signifies double; as, ambiguous (hav- 
ing two meanings.). 

Ante signifies before ; thus, antediluvian, before the flood. 

Bene signifies good, well; as, benevolent, well disposed. 

Bi or bis means two or twice; as, bisect, to cut into two parts. 

Circum signifies round, about; as, circumnavigate, to sail 
round. 



PREFIXES. 97 

Cis signifies on this side ; as, cis-alpine, on this side the Alps. 

Con (com, co, or col) signifies together ; as, convoke, to call to- 
gether. 

Contra (counter, contro) signifies against; as, contradict, to 
speak against; counteract, to act against. 

Be signifies of, from, or down ; as, dethrone, to drive from the 
throne. 

Bi [dis, dif) signifies asunder ; as, distract, to draw asunder. It 
also signifies negation or undoing ; as, disobey, not to obey. 

E (ex) signifies out of; as, elect, to choose out of. 

En signifies in or into ; as, enclose, to close in. 

Equi signifies equal; as, equidistant, at an equal distance. 

Extra signifies out of, beyond; as, extraordinary, beynd the 
ordinary course. 

Ig signifies not ; as, ignoble, not noble. 

Im signifies not, in, on; as, immense, not measurable ; imbibe, 
to drink in ; impel, to drive on. 

In, before an adjective, serves as a negative; as, active, inac- 
tive; before a verb, in signifies in or into ; as, include, to close in. 

Inter signifies between ; as, intervene, to come between. 

Intro signifies to, within; as, introduce, to lead in. 

Ir signifies in, not ; as, irruption, a breaking in ; irreverent, not 
reverent. 

J^atfa signifies nigh to ; as, juxtaposition, placed near to. 

Mai or male (from malus, bad) signifies z7£ or 6ad ; as malprac- 
tice, bad practice. 

Manu (from manus, a hand) signifies w#/& or % tf/ie hand; as, 
manuscript, anything written by the hand. 

Midti signifies many ; as, multiform, having many forms. 

Ob (oc, of, o, op) signifies opposition; as, obstacle, something 
standing in opposition. 

Omni signifies all; as, omnipotent, all powerful. 

Per signifies through or thoroughly ; as, perfect, thoroughly 
done, finished. 

Post signifies after; as, postscript, written after. 

Prse or pre, signifies before ; as, prepaid, paid before. 

Pro signifies forth or forwards; as, promote, to move for- 
wards. 

Prseter or preter signifies past or beyond; as, preternatural, be- 
yond the course of nature. 

7 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Re signifies again or back ; as, regain, to gain back. 

Retro signifies backwards ; as, retrograde, going backwards. 

Se signifies apart or without; as, secrete, to hide, to put aside. 

Sine signifies without; as, sinecure, without care or labor. 

Sub signifies under ; as, submarine, under the sea. 

Super signifies above or over ; as, superscribe, to write above or 
over. 

Trans signifies over, from one place to another ; as, transport, to 
carry over. 

III. PREFIXES OF GREEK ORIGIN. 

A or an signifies privation or without ; as, anonymous, without 
a name. 

Amphi signifies both or the two ; as, amphibious, having two 
lives, or capable of living both on land and in water. 

Ana signifies through or up; as, anatomy, which means liter- 
ally, a cutting up. 

Anti (ant) signifies against ; as, antichristian, against Christian- 
ity ; antarctic, opposite the arctic. 

Apo (ap) signifies from ; as, apogee, from the earth ; aphelion, 
from the sun. 

Dia signifies through; as, diameter, a measure through. 

Epi signifies upon; as, epidemic, upon or among the people. 

Hyper signifies over, above; as, hypercritical, over critical, too 
critical. 

Hypo signifies under, implying concealment; as, hypocrite, a 
person concealing his real character. 

Meta signifies change, transmutation; as, metamorphosis, a 
change of shape. 

Mono signifies single; as, monosyllable, a word of one syllable. 

Para signifies beyond, on one side ; as, paradox, an opinion be- 
yond or contrary to the general opinion. 

Peri signifies round or about ; as, perimeter, a measure round. 

Poly signifies many ; as, polysyllable, a word of many syllables. 

Semi (demi, hemi) signifies half; as, semicircle, half of a circle ; 
hemisphere, half of a sphere. 

Syn (sy, syl, sym) signifies with, together ; as, sympathy, feeling 
with. 

Name other words of Greek origin having these prefixes, and 
give the meaning of the prefix and the word. 



AFFIXES. 



99 



IV. AFFIXES. 

Affixes denoting the agent or doer : 
ant, as in assistant 



beggar. 

dotard. 

adversary. 

charioteer. 

adhered. 

baker. 

2. Affixes denoting the person acted upon : 
ate, as in potentate. ite, as in 
ee, assignee. 

3. Affixes denoting being or state of being : 



ar, 

ard, 

ary, 

eer, 

ent, 

er, 



ian, as 


in physicmw. 


ier, 


clothier. 


ist, 


conformist 


ive, 


op er at we. 


or, 


inspector. 


ster, 


punster. 


yer, 


sawyer. 



favorite. 



acy, as 


in piracy. 


ity, as 


in eternity. 


age, 


bondage. 


ment, 


achievement 


ance, 


repentance. 


mony, 


acri?nony. 


ancy, 


flagrancy. 


ness, 


acuteness. 


ence, 


. adherence. 


ry, 


rivalry. 


ency, 


emergency. 


ship, 


friendship. 


ery, 


mastery. 


th, 


depth. 


hood, 


boyhood. 


tude, 


aptitfnde. 


ice, 


service. 


ty, 


loyally. 


ion, 


exhaustion. 


ure, 


disclosure. 


ism, 


despotism. 






4. Affixes denoting jurisdiction : 






dom, as in kingdom. 


ship, as 


in lordship. 


ric, 


bishopric. 






5. Affixes 


; denoting diminution : 






cle, as 


in corpuscte. 


let, as 


in stream te/. 


en, 


maiden. 


ling, 


duck/in^. 


kin, 


lamb&in. 


ock, 


hillock. 


icle, 


icicle. 


ule, 


globule. 


6. Affixes 


5 denoting of or pertaining to : 




ac, as 


in elegiac. 


ene, as 


in terrene. 


al, 


autumnal 


ie, 


angelic. 


an, 


republican. 


ical, 


canonical 


ar, 


consular. 


He, 


infanti/e. 


ary, 


momentary. 


ine, 


adamantine. 



en, 



wooden. 



ory, 



expiatory. 



LofC. 



100 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



7. Affixes denoting full of: 






ate, as in affectionate. 


ous, as in 


l hazardous. 


ful, hopeful. 


some, 


gladsome. 


ose, verbose. 


y, 


pithy. 


9. Affixes denoting capacity : 






able, as in profitable. 


He, as in 


doci/e. 


ible, contemptible. 


ive, 


communicatee 


9. Affixes denoting to make : 






ate, as in alienate. 


ish, as in 


l publish. 


en, brighten. 


ize, 


legalize. 


fy, justi/i/. 


se, 


cleanse. 


ise, criticise. 






10. Miscellaneous affixes : 






em signifies in or toward, as in 




northern. 


like " likeness, 




saint/z&e. 


ly 




maiden ly. 


ish " small degree of an 


ything, 


bl&ckish. 


less " negation, 




artless. 


ward " in the direction of. 




homeward. 



>x*< 



GENERAL EXERCISE. 



Take an extract of twenty or more lines and classify all the 
words found therein according to their general meaning and 
use, as indicated by a dictionary. Classify them according to 
their meaning and use in the extract given. 

Name all the words which are inflected, and those which 
may be inflected. Name the compound words. Name the 
derivative words ; from what derived ? give affix and prefix. 
Name words containing silent letters. Diphthongs. Triph- 
thongs. Name words which have accented syllables. 



TOPICAL. OUTLINE. 

»o^o« 

ETYMOLOGY. 



The Article . . { f ff e > 
I Indefinite. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



ioi 



The Noun . 




The Adjective . 



{ 



The Pronoun . . < 



The Verb . . . 



The Adverb . . 
The Preposition. 

The Conjunction. 
The Interjection. 



Collective, 

Abstract, 

Verbal, 

Diminutive, 
v. 

Descriptive, 

Definitive, 

Numeral. 

Personal, 

Relative, 

Adjective or ( Distributive, 
Pronominal < Demonstrative, 
Adjectives, *= Indefinite. 

Regular, 
Irregular, 
Transitive, 
Intransitive, 
Principal, 
Auxiliary, 
Defective, 
Participles. 
Conjunctive, 

Manner, Place, Time, Direc- 
tion, etc. 

Simple, 
Compound. 

Co-ordinate, 

Subordinate, 

Correlative, or Corresponding, 

Compound. 




Third Part 



■OO^OO- 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 
Syntax and Analysis treat of Sentences. 

Syntax treats of putting words together into sentences. 
Analysis treats of the separation of a sentence into 
the parts which compose it. 



-oo*K< 



I. SYNTAX. 

General Observations. 

A Sentence is a number of words put together so as 
to make complete sense ; as, Man is mortal. 

The principal parts of a sentence are the Subject (or 
nominative) and the Predicate (or verb). 

A Phrase is a number of words, connected in mean- 
ing, but not containing a predicate, and not making by 
themselves complete sense ; as, " The good man, in the 
midst of his usefulness, has departed. In this sentence, 
the words, in the midst of his usefulness, form a phrase. 
Phrases in their office or use are either adjectival or 
adverbial. 

A Clause is a part of a sentence, containing a predi- 

102 



SYNTAX. 103 

cate with its subject, making by themselves complete 
sense, yet not independent, being used to modify some 
other part or parts of the sentence of which it is a part ; 
as, u The good man, ivho had gained great renown, has 
departed." In this sentence, the words, who had gained 
great renown, form a clause. 

A Simple sentence is one which contains but one 
subject and one predicate ; as, Life is short 

A Complex sentence is one which contains a simple 
sentence, with one or more clauses modifying either its 
subject or its predicate; as, A life which is spent in doing 
good cannot be a failure. 

A Compound sentence is one which contains two or 
more sentences, whether simple or complex, connected 
by one or more conjunctions ; as, Life is short, but art 
is long. 

The sentences which compose a compound sentence 
are called its Members. 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE I. 

The Subject of a Verb must be in the Nomina- 
tive Case. 

notes. 

1. The subject of a verb may be 1. A noun ; as, John 
wrote. 2. A pronoun ; as, She is happy. 3. A verb in 
the infinitive mood, or an infinitive phrase ; as, To study 
seemed his greatest desire. To see the sun is pleasant. 4. 
A participle, or a participial phrase ; as, Reading useful 
books promotes knowledge. 5. A sentence, or a part of a 
sentence ; as, Thou shalt not hill is the sixth commandment. 
In all these instances, the subjects are used as nouns. 

2. The subject of a verb is usually placed before the 
verb. 

3. Rule I. is violated by using the subject of the verb in any 
other case than the nominative. 

Explanation. — The subject of the verb is that of which 
the assertion is made. "The book is in the desk." "John 
and I went home." Now, the subject of the verb, that of 
which anything is asserted, must be in the nominative case. 
It would be contrary to the Rule, therefore, to say, " John and 
me went home," because "me," one of the subjects, is not in 
the nominative case, 

4. Complex names, such as George Washington, Charles 
Henry Grant, etc., should be taken together in parsing, as if 
they were one word. Thus, " Charles Henry Grant," a com- 
plex name, is a proper noun. 

5. A noun or pronoun addressed, and not the subject of 
any verb, is in the Nominative Case Independent; as, 
"Father, forgive them." 

6. A noun or a pronoun put before a participle as its sub- 
ject, and not being the subject of any verb, is in the Nomi- 
native Case Absolute ; as, " My father dying, I was left an 
orphan." 

7. In the construction called the Case Absolute, the noun 



RULE L—THE NOMINATIVE. 105 

or pronoun is the subject of the participle ; and the two words 
taken together form a dependent clause equivalent to a sub- 
ject and a verb preceded by a conjunctive adverb. Thus, 
"Whose grey top shall tremble, he descending ;" that is, 
"when he descends." 

8. The noun or pronoun in absolute clauses is often omitted. 
Thus, in the sentence, " Generally speaking, labor is not with- 
out its reward," the Nominative Absolute of speaking is omitted. 

9. The rule for the construction of absolute clauses is 
violated by putting the subject of the participle in any other 
case than the nominative. "Him dying, I was left an or- 
phan," should be, "He dying, I was left an orphan." As 
the nominative and objective cases of nouns are alike, no 
false syntax can occur under this rule except in pronouns. 

10. Every nominative case, except the case independent, 
the case absolute, the case of apposition, and the nominative 
after an intransitive verb, should be the subject of some verb 
expressed or understood. 

11. A noun and its pronoun should not be used as subjects 
of the same verb ; " The day, it is clear," should be, " The day 
is clear." 

Parsing. 

Parsing consists in stating the grammatical properties 
and relations of words and the rules of syntax which apply 
to them. 

General Directions for Parsing. 

Part of speech, and why; the class, and why; the proper- 
ties, and why; the relation it holds to any other w r ord or 
words in the sentence ; the rule of syntax applicable. 

This form of parsing may be abridged by excluding all rea- 
sons. It may be still further abridged by simply giving the use 
or office of the word in the sentence.* 

Models for Parsing and Correcting. 

"James wrote a letter." " James " is a proper noun, mas- 
culine gender, singular number, third person, nominative 

* The models for parsing herein given are suggestive only, and may 
be changed in such manner as the teacher may think best. 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

case, subject of the verb " wrote," according to Kule I. The 
subject of the verb must be in the nominative case. 

" He will write a letter." " He " is a personal pronoun, 
masc. gen., sing, n., 3d p., nom. case, subject of the verb "will 
write," according to Eule I. (Quote the Rule.) 

" To steal will render us liable to punishment." " To 
steal " is a verb in the infinitive mood used as a noun. It 
is in the neut. gem, sing, n., 3d p., nom. case, subject of the 
verb " will render," according to Note 1, Eule I. (Quote the 
Note.) 

"Father, forgive them." " Father" is a com. noun, masc. 
gen., sing, n., 2d p., and in the nom. case independent, accord- 
ing to Note 5, Eule I. (Quote Note.) 

" The sash falling suddenly, his finger was crushed." " Sash " 
is a com. noun, neut. gen., sing, num., 3d p., and in the nom. 
case absolute before the participle " falling," according to 
Note 6, Eule I. (Quote Note.) 

Correct the sentence, " Him and her are of the same age." 
Him and her are here in the objective case. They should be 
in the nominative, because they are the subjects of the verb 
" are." The sentence should read, " He and she are of the same 
age," according to Eule I. (Quote Eule.) 

Correct the sentence, " Solomon was the wisest of men, him 
only excepted who spake as never man spake ! " Him is 
here in the objective case. It should be in the nominative, 
because it is used absolutely with " excepted." The sentence 
should read " he only excepted," according to Note 6, Eule I. 
(Quote Note.) 

Correct the sentence, "The man, he is rich." He is super- 
fluous, because it is not needed as the subject of any verb. 
The sentence should read, "The man is rich," according to 
Note 11, Eule I. (Quote Note.) 

Exercises. 

Name the predicates of each of the following sentences. 
Name the adjectival modifiers of the subjects. Name the 
adverbial modifiers of the predicates. Parse all the Subjects 
and Nominatives, correcting the sentences where neoessary. 

Virtue ennobles the mind, vice debases it. 



RULE L—THE NOMINATIVE. 107 

London is on the Thames. 

A good conscience fears nothing. 

Him and I could not agree. 

They and us agreed to do it. 

You and them had a long dispute. 

Thomas and me learned the lesson together. 

To see the sun is pleasant. 

To cultivate the ground gives pleasant occupation. 

Show pity, Lord ; O, Lord, forgive. 

Oh what a fall was there, my countrymen ! 

His disease being thoroughly cured, and the busy season 
having commenced, he should have been at his post. 

Napoleon being banished, peace was restored to Europe. 

Napoleon, having raised a large army, crossed the Alps. 

His character, viewing it in the most charitable manner, is 
full of blemishes. 

Them descending, the ladder fell. 

Whom being dead, the hostility ceased. 

Him excepted, John was the worst of the party. 

This truth, if it had been attended to, the parties would 
have escaped a great deal of trouble. 

The North and the South, Thou hast created them. 

Him I accuse has entered. 

If the advice is good, take it. 

He is great, but truth is greater than us all. 

Solomon, who was wiser than them all, built the temple. 

None of the people was more beloved than him. 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE II. 

A Verb Agrees with its Subject in Number 

and Person. 

notes. 

1. Rule II. is violated by using the verb in any other number 
or person than its subject; thus, "They was present," should 
be, "They were present." 

2. In the Indicative, Subjunctive, and Potential moods, 
every verb should have a subject expressed, except where two 
or more verbs are connected in the same construction. 

3. A verb in the Infinitive mood has no subject. 

4. In the Imperative mood, the subject of the verb is usually 
omitted, thou or you being understood. 

5. When the subject of the verb is an infinitive mood, or 
a part of a sentence, the verb should be singular; as, "To 
skate is healthful amusement." " Thou shalt not kill, is 
a divine command." But if there are two or more infini- 
tives, or clauses, making distinct subjects, then the verb should 
be plural; as, "To skate and to play cricket are healthful 
amusements," "Thou shalt not kill, and Thou shalt not steal, 
are divine commands." 

6. When a verb has for its subject a collective noun, the 
verb should be singular if the idea expressed by the subject is 
singular, that is, if the assertion is made of the collection as 
one thing ; as, " The class is large." But, if the idea expressed 
by the subject is plural, that is, if the assertion is made of the 
individuals composing the collection, the verb should be 
plural ; as, " The multitude pursue pleasure as their chief 
good." 

7. Some nouns, which are not considered nouns of multi- 
tude, are frequently used in the singular form, with a plural 
meaning ; as, " Ten sail of the line were seen off the coast." 
In such cases the verb should be plural. 

8. "It," used indefinitely before a verb which has a nomina- 
tive case after it, is the subject of that verb, and the verb 
agrees with it, and not with the other subject; thus, "It is 
I," not " It am I ; " " It is they," not " It are they." 

9. Two or more subjects, connected by and, expressed or 
understood, require a verb in the plural; as, "Socrates and 



RULE IL—THE VERB. 109 

Plato were wise." The verb in such cases should be plural, 
because the assertion is made of all the subjects. For the 
same reason, all the nouns and pronouns, representing such 
subjects, should be plural; as, "Filthiness and bad food are 
sources of disease," not " a source of disease." 

10. Two or more subjects, connected by and, if used to ex- 
press only one person or thing, require a verb in the singular ; 
as, " That eminent statesman and orator is dead." 

11. When singular subjects, though connected by and, belong 
to separate propositions, they have a singular verb ; as, " The 
wine, and not the bottle, was used." Subjects connected by 
and belong to separate propositions, when accompanied by 
each, every, no, not, or some other disuniting word; as, "Every 
house, every grove was burnt," "Good order, and not mean 
savings, produces profits." In the former sentence, the mean- 
ing is, " Every house was burnt, every grove was burnt." In 
the latter, "Good order produces profits, and mean savings 
do not." 

12. Two or more subjects in the singular, connected by or or 
nor, require a verb in the singular ; as, " Ignorance or prejudice 
has caused the mistake." The verb in such cases should be 
singular, because the assertion is true of only one of the 
subjects. For the same reason, all the nouns or pronouns, 
representing such subjects, should be singular. 

13. If any one of several subjects connected by or or nor is 
plural, the verb must be plural; as, "Either he or they were 
mistaken." 

14. When a verb has subjects of different persons, connected 
by and, the verb agrees with the first person rather than the 
second, and with the second rather than the third; as, "He 
and I shared the peach between us." " Shared " should be 
parsed as in the first person. 

15. When a verb has subjects of different persons, connected 
by or or nor, the verb agrees in person with the subject nearest 
to it; as, "Either thou or I am mistaken," not "Either thou 
or I art mistaken.* 

Models for Parsing and Correcting. 

"James wrote a letter." "Wrote" is a transitive verb, ir- 
regular (Pres., write, Past, wrote, Past participle, written), 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

active voice, indicative mood, past tense, and is in the sin- 
gular number, third person, to agree with its subject " James," 
according to Rule II. (Quote the Rule.) 

" To study seems his greatest desire." " Seems " is a trans, 
verb, reg., act. v., ind. m., pres. t., 3d p., and in the sing, n., to 
agree with its subject " to study," a verb in the infinitive mood 
used as a noun, according to Note 5, Rule II. (Quote Note.) 

" Thou shalt not steal, is the eighth commandment." " Is " 
is an int. v., irr. (am, was, been), ind. m., pres. t., 3d p., sing, 
n., to agree with its subject, " Thou shalt not steal," a part of 
a sentence used as a noun, according to Note 5, Rule II. 
(Quote Note.) 

"The multitude pursue pleasure." "Pursue" is a trans, 
verb, reg., act. v., ind. m., pres. t., 3d p., and in the pi. n., to 
agree with its subject "multitude," a collective noun express- 
ing a plural idea, according to Note 6, Rule II. (Quote Note.) 

"Socrates and Plato were wise." "Were" is an intrans. 
verb, irr. (am, was, been), ind. m., past t., 3d p., and in the pi. 
n., because it has two subjects, "Socrates" and "Plato," con- 
nected by and according to Note 9, Rule II. (Quote Note.) 

" If that skilful painter and glazier is in town, be sure to em- 
ploy him." " Is " is an intrans. verb, irr. (am, was, been), ind. 
m., pres. t., 3d p., and in the sing, n., because its two subjects, 
" painter " and " glazier," express only one person, according to 
Note 10, Rule II. (Quote Note.) 

" Ignorance or prejudice has caused the mistake." " Has 
caused " is a trans, verb, reg., act. v., ind. m., pres.-perf. t., 3d p., 
and in the sing, n., because its two subjects, "ignorance " and 
" prejudice," are in the singular, connected by or, according to 
Note 12, Rule II. (Quote Note.) 

" He and I shared the peach between us." " Shared " is a 
trans, verb, reg., act. v., ind. m., past t., in the pi. n., according 
to Note 9, Rule II. (quote Note), and in the 1st p., according 
to Note 14, Rule II. (Quote Note.) 

Note. — Verbs in the Infinitive mood may be parsed for the 
present as follows : 

" James expects to win the prize." " To win " is a trans, verb, 
irr., (win, won, won), act. v., infin. m., pres. t. 

Correct the sentence, "I loves study." Loves is here in 



RULE II.— THE VERB. Ill 

the third person. It should be in the first person, to agree with 
its subject, "I." The sentence should read, "I love study," 
according to Eule II. (Quote Rule.) 

Correct the sentence, " The days of man is but as grass." 
Is here is in the singular number. It should be plural, 
because its subject, "days," is plural. The sentence should 
read, " The days of man are but as grass," according to Eule 
II. (Quote Eule.) 

Correct the sentence, " Dear Sir : Have just received your 
letter." Have received is a verb in the indicative mood, 
without any subject expressed. The sentence should read, 
"J have just received your letter," according to Note 2, 
under Eule II. (Quote Note.) 

Correct the sentence, " To play in the mud and to walk 
through the wet grass, soils the clothes." Soils is here in 
the singular number. It should be plural because it has for its 
subject two infinitives, " to play " and " to walk," making two 
distinct subjects. The sentence should read, "To play in the 
mud and to walk through the wet grass, soil the clothes," ac- 
cording to Note 5, Eule II. (Quote Note.) 

Correct the sentence, " The people has no opinion of their 
own." Has is here in the singular number. It should be 
plural because it has for its subject "people," a collective 
noun expressing a plural idea. The sentence should read, 
" The people have no opinion of their own," according to 
Note 6, Eule II. (Quote Note.) 

Correct the sentence, " Life and death is in the power of 
the tongue." Is is singular. It should be plural, because it 
has two subjects connected by and. The sentence should 
read, " Life and death are in the power of the tongue," ac- 
cording to Note 9, Eule II. (Quote Note.) 

Correct the sentence, " That distinguished poet, orator, 
and scholar are dead." Are is plural. It should be sin- 
gular, because the subjects "poet," "orator," and "scholar," 
though connected by and, express only one person. The 
sentence should read, "That distinguished poet, orator, and 
scholar is dead," according to Note 10, Eule II. (Quote Note.) 

Correct the sentence, "Neither precept nor discipline are 
so forcible as example." Are is plural. It should be sin- 
gular, because it has two singular subjects connected by nor. 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The sentence should read, " Neither precept nor discipline is 
so forcible as example," according to Note 12, Rule II. 
(Quote Note.) 

Correct the sentence, " Either I or thou am greatly mis- 
taken." Am is in the first person. It should be in the second 
person, to agree with the nearer subject " thou." The sen- 
tence should read, " Either I or thou art greatly mistaken," 
according to Note 15, Rule II. (Quote Note.) 

Exercises. 

Name the subject or subjects in each of the following sen- 
tences. Is the predication made of one thing or more than 
one thing? What single words modify the subject? What 
part of speech is each? What single words modify the predi- 
cate ? What part of speech is each ? Parse all the Verbs and 
all the Subjects, correcting the sentences where necessary. 

A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. 

A soft answer turn away wrath. 

Our most sanguine prospects has often been blasted. 

The number of our days are with thee. 

A judicious arrangement of studies facilitate improvement. 

There was no memoranda kept of the sales. 

The number of the inhabitants amount to one million. 

Have a sufficient quantity of oats been given to the horse ? 

Sufficient data w T as not given, and the solution of the prob- 
lems were impossible. 

Between grammar and logic there exists many connections. 

Many means was employed, but no one means were found 
efficient. 

" Oats " are a common noun, of the neuter gender, plural 
number, and are governed by the preposition "of." 

His clothes is torn. 

Dear Sir : — Have just received your letter of yesterday. Am 
sorry to hear that the books have been sold. Hope to have 
better luck next time. On the whole, think have not quite 
all chances of them yet. Very truly yours. 

To encourage virtuous actions are praiseworthy. 

To love God and keep his commandments, are the whole 
duty of man. 



RULE IL—THE VERB. 113 

To eat with unwashed hands, to drink wine, and to eat the 
flesh of certain animals, is forbidden by the Koran. 

Thou shalt love the Lord thy God, is the first and great com- 
mandment. 

Send the multitude away, that it may go and buy itself 
bread. 

Was you there ? 

His pulse are beating very fast. 

Has the animals been fed ? 

There was three or four present. 

Girls are a common noun. 

A committee was appointed to investigate. 

In France, the common people goes barefoot. 

The public is invited. 

Half of the members was absent. 

The House was called to order. 

8 are what part of 12 ? 

John and Mary was at our house last week. 

Neither John nor Mary were at our house last week. 

Some people is busy and yet does very little. 

Cavalry is not furnished with knapsacks. 

The gang contain all the idle and vicious boys of the village. 

Congress have adjourned. 

The youth of this country is well educated. 

The Board of Health have forbidden the vessel to enter the 
port. 

It is the boys of whom I complain. 

The sacred Scriptures should be read by all. 

The smiles of the mob is easily gained. 

Four pair of ducks was brought into the market. 

Twenty head of sheep was grazing on the hill. 

The time and the place for the conference was agreed upon. 

Idleness and ignorance brings sorrow. 

Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden medi- 
ocrity. 

Prosperity and adversity is sent to as for wise purposes. 

My brother with two friends have arrived. 

Nothing but the flag and flagstaff was visible. 

A strong argument, and not a loud voice, bring conviction. 

Food, and no water, are not sufficient to support life. 

8 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Every city, town, and village were depopulated. 

There seems to be war, famine, and disease at this time on 
the earth. 

On the tomb is this inscription : " Here lies a statesman and 
philosopher." 

Our parlor and sitting-room were the front room in the sec- 
ond story. 

His bread and butter depends upon his exertions. 

The house in which I w r as born, my boyhood's happy home, 
and the abode of all those whom I hold dear, are now crum- 
bling to dust. 

The organ or the piano, when skilfully played, produce de- 
lightful music ; but the sound of a drum, or the squeaking of 
the fife, are discordant. 

Neither the secretaries nor the president was to be blamed. 

To read or to write were equally difficult to him. 

Neither the laws nor the Constitution is sufficient to insure 
perfect order in the community. 

Neither the captain, nor the passengers, nor any of the crew 
was saved. 

In him were found neither deceit, nor any other vice. 

Here no longer does my wife or children sit at evening. 
Neither my house, nor she who was its chief attraction, have 
been spared by the destroyer, time. 



RULE III— THE OBJECTIVE. 115 

RULE III. 

A Transitive Verb, in the Active Voice, re- 
quires an Object in the Objective Case. 

notes. 

1. The noun or pronoun in the objective ease is said 
to be governed by the verb. 

2. The object of the verb may be 1. A noun; as, 
John wrote a letter. 2. A pronoun ; as, We saw him. 3. 
A verb in the infinitive mood, or an infinitive phrase ; 
as, He tried to win the prize. Boys love to play ball. 
4. A participle, or a participial phrase ; as, We should 
avoid talking foolishly. 5. A sentence, or a part of a sen- 
tence ; as, God said, " Let there be light." In all these 
instances the objectives are used as nouns. 

3. The object of a verb is usually placed after the verb. 

4. The object of a transitive verb, whether noun, pro- 
noun, or part of a sentence, is called a modifier or ad- 
junct of the predicate. It is sometimes called the object 
complement of the verb. 

5. Rule III. is violated in four ways, namely : 1. By using 
the object of the verb in any other case than the objective; 
" She asked him and I to do it," should be, " She asked him 
and me to do it." 2. By using a transitive verb in the ac- 
tive voice without an object; "He ingratiates with people," 
should be, " He ingratiates himself with people." 3. By in- 
serting a preposition between the verb and its object; "I 
shall premise with a few observations," should be, "I shall 
premise a few observations." 4. By using an objective with a 
verb that is not transitive ; " I lie me down to sleep," should 
be, "I lie down to sleep." 

6. A participle of a Transitive verb, in the Active voice, re- 
quires an object in the objective case; as, "The boy, having 
eaten unripe fruit, became sick." 

7. The Relative Pronoun, when in the objective case, usually 
precedes the verb by which it is governed; as, "The book 
which you see is mine." Here, "which" is the object of the 

and is placed before it. 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

8. The verb to teach and some few others retain the object 
in the objective case, even in the passive voice. 

In explaining this construction, which is somewhat peculiar 
in English, though common in Latin, it is necessary to notice 
the distinction between the direct and the indirect object of 
a verb. " He gives the book to me." " Book " is the direct 
object, "me " is the indirect object. In changing the expres- 
sion to the passive, the direct object becomes the subject; as, 
" The book is given to me." Now, in the case of the verb " to 
teach," and some few others, in changing to the passive, the 
direct object remains in the objective, and the indirect object 
becomes the subject; thus, Active : " He taught grammar to 
the pupils." In changing this expression to the Passive, the 
direct object, " grammar," remains in the objective, but the 
indirect object, "pupils," becomes the subject; thus, Passive : 
" The pupils were taught grammar." The following are addi- 
tional examples of this construction : " I was asked a ques- 
tion," " I was denied the privilege," " I was offered a place in 
the custom-house." 

Models for Parsing and Correcting. 

" James wrote a letter." " Letter " is a com. noun, n. g., sing. 
n., 3d p., and is in the obj. c, governed by '"wrote," a transi- 
tive verb in the active voice, according to Rule III. (Quote.) 

"The boy, having eaten unripe fruit, became sick." 
"Fruit" is a com. noun, n. g., sing, n., 3d p., and in the obj. 
c, governed by the participle " having eaten," according to 
Note 6, Rule III. (Quote.) 

" James saw him." " Him " is a pers. pronoun, masc. g., 
sing, n., 3d p., and in the obj. c, governed by "saw," a trans, 
v. in the act. v., according to Rule III. (Quote.)* 

Correct the sentence, " He and they we know, but who art 
thou?" He and they are in the nominative case. They 
should be in the objective case, because they are the objects 
of the verb "know." The sentence should read "Him and 
them we know, but who art thou?", according to Rule III. 
(Quote.) 

* The parsing of the Pronoun here is complete as far as it goes. But 
there are other things to be learned concerning it under Rule VIII., 
before it can be parsed in full. 



RULE III— THE OBJECTIVE. 117 

Correct the sentence, " He ingratiates with some by traduc- 
ing others." Ingratiates, sl transitive verb, should not be used 
without an object. The sentence should read, " He ingratiates 
himself with some by traducing others." 

Correct the sentence, " I shall premise with a few general 
observations." The preposition with should not be inserted 
between the transitive verb " premise " and its object " observa- 
tions. " The sentence should read, " I shall premise a few gen- 
eral observations." 

Correct the sentence, " I lie me down to sleep." Lie an 
intransitive verb, should not have an object me. Either 
change "lie" to " lay," or omit "me." The sentence should 
read, " I lay me down to sleep," or " I lie down to sleep." 

Exercises. 

Name the subject in each of the following sentences. Name 
the predicate or verb agreeing with the subject. Which of 
these verbs are transitive ? What is the object of each of 
these transitive verbs? Parse the Objectives which are the 
objects of verbs and participles, and all the Subjects and 
Verbs, correcting the sentences where necessary : 

She that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. 

The sailors, while exploring the island, found trees bearing 
delicious fruit. Having eaten a quantity of this fruit, and 
rested their weary limbs, they continued their journey. 

Devotion strengthens virtue. 

We ought to disengage from the world by degrees. 

A good conscience fears nothing. 

Repenting him of his design, he returned to his home. 

Application in early life will give ease in old age. 

He who committed the offence, thou shouldst punish, not I 
who am innocent. 

It is difficult to agree his conduct with the principles which 
he professes. 

Perseverance in labor will surmount every difficulty. 

Wrong acts he suffers with patience. 

The child chased after the butterfly. 

The waters of the Mississippi flow into the Gulf of 
Mexico. 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The fountains of the great deep were broken up. 

Cave canem, translated into English, means " Beware of the 
dog." 

Slow and steady often out-travels haste. 

All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy. 

Who should I see the other day but my cousin ! 

Be careful who you trust. 

In these cases, custom generally determines. 

Yet even the dogs are allowed the crumbs which fall from 
the master's table. 

She sat herself down on the chair. 

Go, flee thee away into the land of Judea. 

" Chiefs, sages, heroes, bards, and seers, 
That live in story and in song, 
Time, for the last two thousand years, 
Has raised, and shown, and swept along." 



RULE IV.— PREPOSITIONS. 119 

RULE IV. 

A Peeposition requires an Object in the Ob- 
jective Case. 

NOTES. 

1 . The noun or pronoun in the objective case after a 
preposition is said to be governed by the preposition. 

2. The preposition and the word governed by it is 
called a Prepositional Phrase or an Adjunct. As such it 
may be either adverbial or adjectival in character, and 
may modify a verb, an adverb, an adjective, or a npun. 

3. A Preposition is usually placed before the word which it 
governs ; as, " He came to town." 

4. That, when used as a relative pronoun, always precedes 
the preposition by which it is governed ; as, " Every book that 
you have referred to, is mine.'' Here "that" is governed by 
the preposition "to," and precedes it. If we were to use 
" which " here instead of " that," the arrangement would be 
different; thus, "Every book to which you have referred, is 
mine." 

5. Whom and which sometimes precede the preposition ; as, 
"The person whom I travelled with." This mode of construc- 
tion is considered inelegant, especially where the preposition 
is separated some distance from the word which it governs. 
The phrase, " The person whom I travelled with," should read, 
" The person with whom I travelled." 

6. The preposition and the word governed by it should be 
placed as near as possible to the preceding word to which they 
relate ; as, " He was reading in a low voice, when I entered." 
This is better than saying, " He was reading, when I entered, in 
a low voice." The words " in a low voice," relate to the act of 
" reading," and should not unnecessarily be separated from it. 

7. Sometimes, in law papers, and other documents of a 
formal nature, two prepositions govern jointly the same word ; 
as, " He is related to, and governed by, the same person." Such 
constructions in other kinds of writing should be avoided. 
The sentence should read : " He is related to the same person, 
and is governed by him." 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 

8. It is an objectionable mode of construction to have the 
same word governed jointly by a transitive verb and a prepo- 
sition ; as, " He was warned of, and urged to avoid, the dan- 
ger." It should be, "He was warned of the danger, and 
urged to avoid it." 

9. When a preposition is followed by an adjective without a 
noun, supply the noun, and parse the preposition accordingly; 
thus, " Keep to the right," means, " Keep to the right side." 

10. The preposition is frequently omitted, particularly after 
verbs of giving and 'procuring ; after adjectives of likeness or near- 
ness ; and before nouns denoting time, place, price, measure, etc. 
When it is practicable to supply the ellipsis, the noun or pro- 
noun is parsed as in the objective, governed by the preposition 
thus supplied ; thus, " Give me a book." " Get me an apple." 
" Like his father." " Books worth a dollar," meaning, " Give 
to me a book." " Get for me an apple." " Like to his father/' 
" Books to the worth of a dollar." But when no such prepo- 
sition can be supplied, we say the noun is in the objective, 
expressing time, place, price, measure, etc., without any govern- 
ing word. 

11. Formerly, the preposition for was used before the infini- 
tive mood; as, " What went ye out for to see?" This is not 
allowable now. The sentence should read, "What went ye 
out to see?" 

12. Sometimes one preposition immediately precedes an- 
other; as, "From before the altar." In such cases the two 
prepositions should be considered as one, as in the case of 
compound prepositions such as upon, within, etc. 

13. Sometimes a preposition precedes an adverb; as, at 
once, for ever. In such cases, the two words should be taken 
together, and called an adverb, or an adverbial phrase. 

14. At and to. At is used after a verb of rest; as, " He re- 
sides at Madrid." To is used after a verb of motion ; as, " He 
went to Madrid." 

15. Between and among. Between refers to two objects, among 
to more than two ; as, " There is no difference of opinion be- 
tween the President and the Vice-President (two), although 
there is among the members of the Cabinet (more than two)." 

16. The following list contains a few of the most common 
instances of appropriate prepositions : 



RULE IV.-PREPOSITIONS. 121 

Absent from. f Attribute to (verb). 

Access to. 1 Attribute of (noun). 

Accused of. f Diminished from (a verb). 

Acquit of. 1 Diminution of (a noun). 

Adapt to. Betray to a person. 

Affection for. " into a thing. 

Alienate from. Call o?2 a person. 

Alliance w#&. " at a house. 

Bestow wpora. " /or a thing. 

Comply with. Confide to (transitive). 

Consonant with. " in (intransitive). 

Depend upon. Accord to (transitive). 

Dissent from. " m£/& (intransitive). 

Made of. Compare to (for illustration). 

Martyr for. " with (for quality). 

Need of. Copy /rom nature. 

True to. " q/ifer a parent. 

{Agent charged w#& a thing. Defend others /rom. 

Thing charged on an agent. ourselves against. 

f Avert /rom (verb). Die of a disease. 

1 Averse to (adjective). " by & sword. 

Differ with sl person in opinion. Reconcile a person to. 

" from him in character. " a thing with. 

Agree with a person. Taste of (actual enjoyment). 

" to a thing. " for (capacity for enjoying). 

Models for Parsing. 

" James wrote a letter to his father." " To " is a preposition, 
showing the relation between " wrote " and " father," and gov- 
erns " father " in the obj. c, according to Rule IV. (Quote.) 

" Father " is a com. noun, masc. g., sing, n., 3d p., and in the 
obj. c, governed by the preposition " to," according to Rule 
IV. (Quote.) 

" God seeth in secret." " In " is a preposition, showing the 
relation between " seeth " and " places," or some such noun 
understood. The meaning is, " God seeth in secret places." 

Exercises. 

Name the prepositions in the following sentences. Name 
the word governed by each. Name the phrases formed by the 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

preposition and the word governed by it. State whether ad- 
jectival or adverbial in character, and what they modify. 
Parse all the Prepositions, Subjects, Verbs, and Objectives, 
correcting the sentences where necessary : 

Indolence undermines the foundation of virtue, and unfits 
a man for the duties of life. 

Between you and I, he has no scholarship to boast of. 

God, in whom I trust, will protect me. 

Confide to real friends only ; confide nothing in him who has 
once deceived you. 

If I compare my penmanship to yours, mine will suffer by 
the comparison. 

Newton, in order to show how little he had accomplished, 
compared himself with a child picking pebbles on the sea- 
shore. 

The Indian differs with the Caucasian in color. 

I differ with you on this point. 

Who did you receive that intelligence from ? 

The book, which the story is printed in, is full of pictures. 

You have little influence with him. 

The fine day was followed by a storm of rain. 

Congress consists in a Senate and House of Representatives. 

He came of a sudden. 

Wanted, a young man to care of some horses of a religious 
turn of mind. 

Whom was the letter sent to ? 

Allow me to present you with a purse. 

The letter is unworthy your notice. 

The delay in the printing renders the progress very slow of 
the work. 

Beyond this period, the arts cannot be traced of civil society. 

He is unacquainted with, and cannot speak upon, the sub- 
ject. 

He dwelt upon, and strongly urged, your claims. 

I received, but had not time to reply to, your letter. 

The book is like its author. 

The fountain is near the city. 

His mother bought him a top. 

The next day they set out early in the morning, and trav- 
elled twenty miles. 



RULE IK— PREPOSITIONS. 123 

His health he little thought of. 

Wanted, a room for two gentlemen about thirty feet long 
and twenty feet broad. 

Lost, near Highgate Archway, an umbrella belonging to a 
gentleman with a lost rib and a bone handle. 

He was talking, while his class were quietly studying, in a 
loud voice, when the teacher entered, and spoke to him, with 
noiseless steps. 

Who did you inquire of, at the house which you were sent 
to, and what did they complain of? 

He approved of and voted for this measure. 

I have noticed of late that the sky above and the earth be- 
neath wear an appearance of gloom. 

I sought in vain for a cheerful spot, and at last gave up in 
despair. 

I will take her for better, for worse. 

He addresses himself to the loyal. 

Though he was a child only five years old, he showed grown 
men an example worthy their imitation. 

Next her brother, stood a little girl, who asked the boy oppo- 
site her place, to lend her his book, but he churlishly refused 
her this simple request. 

The thermometer was two degrees below zero. 

He was sent home two weeks sooner than the usual time. 

Among a brother and a sister no strife should rise. 

Between the many religious sects he was unable to find one 
suited to his notions of religion. 

The army will remain in Washington for a day and then 
march at the nearest point of attack. 

A lot, one hundred feet front and two hundred feet deep, 
will be sold on Monday. 

Keep to the right as the law directs. 

Turn neither to the right nor to the left. 

He divided his estate between his wife, his son, and his 
daughter. 

His actions do not accord to his preaching ; we cannot ac- 
cord our support with him. 

It was difficult to reconcile the mother with the loss of her 
child ; she could not reconcile such an affliction to the good- 
ness of God. 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE V. 
A Noun or a Pronoun in the Possessive Case 

IS DEPENDENT UPON THE NOUN SIGNIFYING THE 
THING POSSESSED. 

NOTES. 

1. The noun or pronoun in the possessive is said to be 
governed by the noun signifying the thing possessed. 

2. The possessive case is not the only way in which the idea 
of possession may be expressed. A very common mode of 
expressing this idea is by using the preposition of Thus, 
" The house of my father," and " My father's house," express 
equally the idea of possession. In substituting one of these 
modes of expression for the other, care should be taken to see 
that the two expressions have the same meaning. In the ex- 
pression, "The House of Representatives," " of" does not con- 
vey the idea of possession, but of composition. It means the 
House of Assembly composed of Representatives. 

3. The noun governing the possessive case is often omitted ; 
as, " I bought this slate at the bookseller's," meaning " at the 
bookseller's store." In such cases, supply the omission, and 
parse according to the general rule. 

4. In consequence of ellipsis, there is sometimes an appear- 
ance of a double possessive ; as, " This is a speech of the king's 
[speeches]." Here, "of" does not denote possession. The 
meaning is, " This speech is one of the king's speeches. In all 
such instances, the preposition governs the noun understood, 
and the noun understood governs the possessive. 

5. The two modes of expression, " A picture of the king," 
and " A picture of the king's," never mean the same thing. 
The noun understood in the latter case is always plural, and 
the idea is always that of possession. The phrase, " A picture 
of the king's," implies that this is one of a number of pic- 
tures, and that they belong to the king. But the phrase, " A 
picture of the king," means a portrait of him ; no intimation 
is given of a plurality of pictures, and no idea of possession 
is implied. 

6. In complex names and in complex titles, the sign of the 



RULE V.— THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 125 

possessive is placed only at the end, and the whole complex 
name, or title, is parsed as one word. Thus, " George Wash- 
ington's farewell address," not " George's Washington's." 

7. A complex title sometimes consists of several words, some 
of which may be different parts of speech, and may have an 
independent construction of their own ; thus, " The captain 
of the guard's horse was slain." In parsing such a sentence, 
" of the guard " should be parsed first, each word separately, 
" guard" being in the objective. Then, "captain of the 
guard's " should be parsed as one complex title, in the pos- 
sessive case, governed by " horse." The 's belongs not to 
" guard," but to the whole expression. These complex titles 
are sometimes written with a hyphen, as, "commander-in- 
chief." 

8. Where complex titles are used, the idea of possession may 
be conveyed by using " of," " belonging to," or something simi- 
lar. This mode of expression in such cases is generally to be 
preferred to the use of 's. Thus, " The horse belonging to the 
captain of the guard was slain." 

9. When two or more nouns in the possessive are connected, 
expressing joint possession, the sign of the possessive should 
be placed after the last noun only ; as, " The king and queen's 
marriage." " King " here is to be parsed as the possessive, with 
the sign of the possessive omitted. If, however, several words 
intervene between the nouns so connected, the sign of the 
possessive should be placed after each noun ; as, " It was my 
father's, and also my mother's wish." 

10. When two or more nouns in the possessive are connected, 
expressing separate possession, the sign of the possessive should 
be placed after each of the nouns; as, "Washington's and 
Cornwallis's troops approached each other." 

11. When two nouns, or a noun and a pronoun, are in appo- 
sition, the sign of the possessive is often omitted after one of 
the words ; as, " For David thy father's sake." Here David is 
parsed as in the possessive, the sign of the possessive being 
omitted. " Here rests his head, a youth to fortune and to fame 
unknown." "Youth," here, is in the possessive, the sign of 
the possessive being omitted, and is in apposition with "his." 
The meaning is, " The head of him, a youth," etc. 

12. Care should be taken not to separate the possessive from 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the governing word by inserting explanatory clauses ; as, "She 
extolled the farmer's, as she called him, excellent understand- 
ing.' ' In such cases, the idea of possession should be expressed 
by " of," or in some similar way. Thus, " She extolled the ex- 
cellent understanding of the farmer, as she called him." 

13. Certain compound pronouns in the possessive case are 
sometimes separated ; as, " Into whose house soever you enter." 
This, however, is to be avoided. 

14. The possessive is sometimes governed by a participle 
used as a noun ; as, " The cause of John's forgetting the lesson 
was his anxiety about the excursion." Here, " John's " is in 
the possessive case, governed by the participle " forgetting" 
used as a noun. It would not be correct to put " John " in 
the objective case governed by "of." "Of," here governs 
"forgetting," not "John." "The cause of John forgetting 
the lesson," should be, " The cause of John's forgetting the 
lesson." "The cause of him not doing it," should be, "The 
cause of his not doing it." 

Models for Parsing. 

"James wrote a letter by his father's permission." "Fa- 
ther's " is a com. noun, masc. g., sing, n., 3d p., and in the poss. 
c, governed by " permission," according to Rule V. (Quote.) 

" George Washington's Farewell Address has just been read." 
"George Washington's," a complex name, is a prop, noun, 
masc. g., sing, n., 3d p., poss. c, governed by " Address " ac- 
cording to Eule V. (Quote.) 

Exercises. 
Name all the nouns in the following sentences that are in 
the possessive case. Name all the subjects and predicates. 
Name the single word modifiers of each. How used? Name 
the phrase modifiers of each. How used? Parse all the 
Possessives, Subjects, Verbs, Objectives, and Prepositions, cor- 
recting the sentences wherever necessary : 

A man's manners often make his fortune. 

Asa's heart was perfect in the Lord's sight. 

Helen's beauty caused the destruction of Troy. 

The Representatives' House adjourned on the fifth of June. 



RULE V.— THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 127 

The Lord's day will come as a thief in the night. 

This is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's. 

The Archbishop of Baltimore's letter was published in the 
daily papers. 

William and Mary's reign was one of the most distinguished 
in English history. 

John's and Mary's bookcase is filled, partly with his books, 
and partly with hers. 

John and Mary's bookcases are both filled with books. 

William and Lucy's cloaks were lost. 

The Princeton and the Earitan's crews are now both com- 
plete. 

If he learn any trade, it should be his father's. 

He was tried at the magistrate's for stealing a parcel of rings 
at the jeweller's. 

The painting of Christ Healing the Sick is a picture of W^est. 

There are many pictures of Washington's on tavern signs. 

The farewell address of Washington's was read on the anni- 
versary of his death. 

It was the Sergeant-at-arm's duty to execute the Speaker of 
the House of Representatives' order. 

The Archbishop of Canterbury's opinion was preferred to the 
Archbishop of York's. 

Men and women's shoes are made very differently. 

Paul's, the Apostle's, letter to the Hebrews. 

For Herodias' sake, his brother Philip's wife. 

The captain and the lieutenant's swords were much alike in 
appearance. 

Scott's and Butler's store was destroyed by the fire, and all 
the goods belonging to the firm were burned. 

No one ever doubted Mad Anthony's, as he was called, 
bravery and skill. 

They divided their time between the milliner's shop and the 
candy stalls. 

I will not do it for twenties sake. 

Then Jethro, Moses' father-in-law, took Zipporah. 

Were John and Mary's clothes taken ? 

Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation was that of fisher- 
men. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

RULE VI. 

A Noun or a Pronoun in Apposition with 

ANOTHER AGREES WITH IT IN CASE. 

NOTES. 

1. A word is said to be in apposition with another when 
it is used to explain the other, or when it is repeated for 
emphasis; as, "Smith, the bookseller, lives in that house." 
"Cisterns, broken cisterns, that can hold no water." "We, 
the people of the United States." 

2. The words in apposition may be in any case, nominative, 
possessive, or objective. 

3. When a word is in apposition with another in the pos- 
sessive case, the sign of the possessive is sometimes omitted. 

" This is the wandering wood, this Error's den, 
A monster vile, whom God and man do hate." 
" Monster," here, is in the possessive case, the sign of the pos- 
sessive being omitted, and is in apposition with " Error's." 

4. A noun may be used in apposition with a whole sentence ; 
as, " He promptly acceded to my request, an act which re- 
dounds greatly to his honor." " Act " is here nominative, in 
apposition with the whole of the preceding sentence. 

5. When several words form one proper name, as, " Thomas 
Jefferson," these words are in apposition, but they should be 
parsed together as one complex noun. In forming the plural 
number, or the possessive case, of such complex names, the 
sign should be put only at the end; as, " The country has not 
had two Thomas Jeffersons ; " " Thomas Jefferson's works." 

6. When a proper name has a title prefixed, as, " General 
Greene," " Dr. Rush," " Mr. Stockton," the words are in appo- 
sition, but they should be parsed together as one complex 
noun. In forming the plural of such complex names, if, be- 
sides the article, there is a numeral adjective prefixed, the last 
word only should be plural ; as, " The two Mr. Stocktons. 77 But 
if there is no numeral prefixed, the title only should be plural ; 
as, " The Messrs. Stockton," " The Misses Stockton." 

7. One of the most frequent instances of apposition is where 
the proper noun of an object is appended to its common name; 



RULE VI.— APPOSITION. 129 

as, " The river Delaware/' " The poet Tennyson," " The steam- 
boat Philadelphia." It is a peculiarity of the English language 
that the proper names of places, when so appended, are not in 
apposition, but are put in the objective and governed by " of; " 
as, " The city of Philadelphia." 

8. The phrases, " They love one another," " They love each 
other," etc., afford instances of apposition that very frequently 
occur. In the first of these examples, " one " is in the nomi- 
native, and is in apposition with " they ;" and " another " is in 
the objective, governed by " love." The meaning is " One 
loves another." 

Model for Parsing. 

" James wrote a letter to his brother John." " John " is a 
prop, noun, masc. g., sing, n., 3d p., obj. c, in apposition with 
the noun " brother," according to Eule VI. (Quote.) 

Exercises. 

In the following sentences, name the word in apposition 
and the word which it explains. The word in apposition is a 
modifier or adjunct of the word explained. In what particu- 
lar does the latter agree with the former ? Does it agree in 
gender? Number? Person? 

Name the subject and the predicate in each of the follow- 
ing sentences. Name all the modifiers (single words and 
phrases) of each. Parse the Nouns and Pronouns in Appo^ 
sition, and all the Subjects, Verbs, Possessives, Objectives, and 
Prepositions, correcting the sentences where necessary : 

Alexander, the coppersmith, did me great harm. 

Harrisburg, the capital of Pennsylvania, lies on the bank of 
the Susquehanna. 

The knife was given to me by my brother James, he that 
was here last week. 

Mr. Dale, the carpenter, him whom you saw here yesterday, 
is dead. 

There are eight Kings Henry in English history. 

The hare is beset by death in various forms, snares, dogs, 
and the hunter's gun. 

Webster, the orator, was from the same State that honored 
Sumner, the philanthropist. 

9 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The acts of Daniel, the prophet, David the psalmist, Moses 
the law-giver, and Paul the apostle, are all recorded in the 
Bible, the book of books. 

Ye men of Israel, why stand ye looking up ? 

My old friend, he who is often styled faithful John, is with 
me. 

Come, let us make a covenant, thee and me. 

I met a fool, a crazy fool, in the streets, selling pictures, the 
works of his own idle fancy. 

They destroyed the vessel and returned without losing a 
single man, an exploit which was highly creditable. 

He was playing ball, an amusement of which boys are very 
fond. 

We Americans call England our mother country. 

I have two aunts Mary. 



RULE VIL—THE CASE AFTER TO BE. 131 
RULE VII. 

The Verb To Be has the same Case after it 
as before it. 

NOTES. 

1. The noun or pronoun after the verb to be is not in ap- 
position with the noun or pronoun before it, but is a part 
of the predicate ; as, " James is commander of the troops." 
" Commander " should be parsed as nominative after the verb 
is, and forming a part of the predicate. As a part of the pred- 
icate, the words so used after the verb to be are considered 
adjuncts or modifiers of the predicate. 

2. This rule applies also to the verb become and to several 
other intransitive verbs, and also to the passive voice of some 
transitive verbs, such as to be named, to be called, etc. 

3. The verb to be in the infinitive mood used as a noun may 
have a noun or a pronoun after it without any other noun be- 
fore it ; as, " To be a good man, is not so easy a thing as many 
people imagine." Here, " man " should be parsed as used in- 
definitely after the verb to be, without saying what its case is. 
The infinitive mood of many other intransitive verbs, and 
the infinitive passive of some transitive verbs, may also have 
a noun or a pronoun after them used indefinitely; as, "To 
live a consistent Christian is not easy," " To be called a Roman 
was counted a great honor." 

Model for Parsing. 

" James is commander of the troops." " Commander " is a 

com. noun, masc. g., sing, n., 3d p., nom. c. after the verb " is," 

and forming a part of the predicate, according to Rule VII. 

(Quote.) 

Exercises. 

What words in the following sentences have the same case 
as the word before the verb ? Name the subject and predicate 
in each sentence. What words or phrases modify each sub- 
ject and predicate? In each sentence, parse the Nouns and 
Pronouns after the verb in the same case as the noun or pro- 
noun before it, and all the Subjects, Verbs, Possessives, Ob- 
jectives, and Prepositions, correcting the sentences where 
necessary : 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Thomson, the author of " The Seasons," is a delightful poet. 

The Senate caused Scylla to be proclaimed Dictator. 

Education, the great civilizer, is the best safeguard of that 
blood-bought blessing, liberty. 

This is Arnold's grave, that vile traitor who sold his country 
for money. 

Godliness with contentment are great gain. 

Wine has been his ruin. He entered manhood a pattern of 
sobriety, but died a miserable sot. 

When I reign king, thou shalt be my slave. 

Solomon is counted the wisest man of all ages. 

The carriage was returned a perfect wreck. 

To die a Christian is more desirable than to reign king. 

To live a coward accords better with some persons' inclina- 
tion, than to leave the world a hero. 

Who do you think me to be ? 

It is me. 

It is your general. 

Whom do men say, that I, the son of man, am ? 

It is us that they seek to punish. 

He is very wicked. 

Aaron Burr was not honorable. 

The sailor was called a hero. 

Lincoln was elected President. 

It is said that money is the root of all evil. 



RULE VIIL—THE PRONOUN. 133 

RULE VIII. 

A Pronoun Agrees with the Noun or the 
Pronoun for which it Stands, in Gender, Num- 
ber, and Person. 

notes. 

1. When a Pronoun stands for a Collective noun, the pro- 
noun should be singular if the idea expressed by the noun is 
singular, and should be in the neuter gender ; as, " The class 
is too large ; it must be divided." But if the idea expressed by 
the noun is plural, the pronoun should be plural ; as, " Send 
the multitude away that they may buy themselves bread." 

2. When a pronoun stands for two or more words, connected 
by and, the pronoun should be plural. Thus, " William and 
Mary were both there ; I saw them," " He and Mary were 
both there ; I saw them" " He and she were both there ; I 
saw them" " Them " in the first example stands for two 
nouns ; in the second for a noun and a pronoun ; in the third 
for two pronouns. 

3. When a pronoun stands for two or more words connected 
by and, but used to express only one subject, the pronoun 
should be singular. Thus, " He knew his Lord and Saviour, 
and loved Him." 

4. When a pronoun stands for two or more words, in the 
singular, connected by or or nor, the pronoun should be 
singular. Thus, " Either play or work is injurious, if it is 
carried to excess." If one of the words connected by or or 
nor is plural, the pronoun should be plural; as, "Neither the 
captain nor the men knew of their danger." 

5. When a pronoun stands for two or more words, connected 
by and, but of different persons, the pronoun agrees with the 
first person rather than with the second, and with the second 
rather than with the third. Thus, " William and I had our skates 
with us." " Our " and " us " are plural, because they stand 
for two subjects, " William " and " I." But one of these sub- 
jects, " William," being in the third person, and the other " I," 
being in the first person, the pronoun which stands for both 
must be in the first person. We would not express the mean- 
ing if we were to say, "William and I had their skates with 
them" 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

6. When a pronoun stands for two or more words, connected 
by and, but of different genders, the gender of the pronoun is 
indeterminate, and must be omitted in parsing; as, "I saw 
the man and his portrait side by side, and I could hardly tell 
them apart, so great was the likeness." Here, " them " stands 
for "man" (masc.) and "portrait" (neuter); the gender of 
" them " therefore cannot be determined. 

7. Words of different genders or persons, connected by or or 
nor, cannot be correctly represented by a single pronoun. 

Thus, "Mary or William has lost book." We cannot 

supply the blank with her, his, or their. Again, " He or I have 

lost book." We cannot supply the blank with his, my, 

their, or our. 

8. A pronoun may stand for an infinitive mood ; as, " To 
contradict may be rude, but it is not criminal." A pronoun 
may stand also for a sentence, or a part of a sentence ; as, " He 
is very witty, but unfortunately he is aware of it." The pro- 
noun in such cases should be in the neuter gender, singular 
number, and third person. But if there are two or more in- 
finitives, sentences, or parts of sentences, making distinct 
subjects, then the pronoun should be plural ; as, " To be tem- 
perate, and to use exercise in the open air, are good preserva- 
tives of health, but they are not infallible." 

9. The pronoun it is sometimes used indefinitely, that is, 
without standing for any particular noun. Thus, " Come and 
trip it as you go," "It rains," " It was he that did it." 

10. The gender of a noun is sometimes changed by personifi- 
cation. In such instances, a similar change occurs in the gen- 
der of the pronoun; as, " The ship had lost her anchor." 

11. We frequently, and you generally, are used to represent 
the singular. It is improper in such cases to change the con- 
struction during the progress of a sentence; as, "You were 
true to me in the day of trouble, and thy kindness I can never 
forget." It should be either " thou " and " thy," or " you " and 
"your." 

12. Who is used in referring to persons ; Which is used in re- 
ferring to inferior animals, to things without life, to infants, to 
collective nouns expressing a singular idea, and to persons in 
asking questions where the particular individual is inquired 



RULE VIII.— THE PRONOUN. 135 

for. " Which " was formerly applied to persons as well as 
things; as, "Our Father, which art in heaven." 

13. That is used instead of Who or Which in the following 
cases : 

(a) After two antecedents, one requiring who, and the other 
requiring which; as, " The man and the house that we saw yes- 
terday." 

(b) After the Superlative; as, "It is the best book that can 
be got." 

(c) After Same; as, "He is the same kind-hearted man that 
he used to be." 

(d) After All, or any similar antecedent expressing a gen- 
eral meaning, limited by the following verb; as, "All that 
heard me can testify." 

(e) After Who, used interrogatively; as, "Who, that has seen 
anything of human nature, can believe it?" 

(/) After It, used indefinitely ; as, "It was he that did it." 

14. When the relative has two antecedents, of different per- 
sons, one before and the other after the verb to be, the relative 
agrees in person with the nearer ; as, " I am the man who com- 
mands you." Where a different meaning is intended, the 
relative should be placed nearer the first antecedent ; as, " I, 
who command you, am the man." 

15. The relative should be placed near its antecedent to 
prevent ambiguity; thus, "The boy beat his friend, whom 
everybody believed incapable of doing mischief," should be, 
" The boy, ivhom everybody believed incapable of doing mis- 
chief, beat his friend." 

16. The relative is sometimes omitted; as, "The letter 
you wrote me on Saturday, came duly to hand," meaning, 
"The letter which you wrote me." 

17. The antecedent is sometimes omitted ; as, " Who lives 
to nature, rarely can be poor," meaning, " The person who 
lives." 

18. What is sometimes apparently used as an adverb, but in 
all such cases the ellipsis can be supplied ; as, " What doth it 
profit a man?" that is, "In w T hat respect doth it profit a 
man?" 

19. What should not be used for the conjunction that. Thus, 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

" I don't know but what I shall go," should be, " I don't know 
but that I shall go." 

Whichsoever , whatsoever, etc., are sometimes written as two 
words with other words intervening; as, "which side soever." 
In parsing, the two parts of the word should be taken together 
as one word. 

20. The part of the sentence introduced by a relative pro- 
noun is called a relative clause. 

Models for Parsing. 

"John, who was at school, wrote a letter to his father." 
"Who" is a rel. pron., relating to its antecedent, "John," 
masc. g., sing, n., 3d p., to agree with " John," according to 
Eule VIII. (quote), and is in the nom. c, subject of the verb 
"was," according to Eule I. (Quote.) 

" The class is too large ; it must be divided." " It " is a pers. 
pron., relating to " class," n. g., and in the sing, n., 3d p., to 
agree with " class," a collective noun expressing a singular 
idea, according to Rule VIII., Note 1 (quote Note), and is in 
the nom. c, subject of the verb "must be divided," according 
to Eule I. (Quote.) 

" William and I had our skates with us." " Us " is a pers. 
pron., relating to " William " and " I," two words of differ- 
ent persons ; it is therefore in the 1st p., according to Note 
5, Eule VIII. (quote Note), pi. n., according to Note 2, Eule 
VIII. (quote Note), and obj. c, governed by the preposition 
"with," according to Eule IV. (Quote.) 

" The man and the house that we saw yesterday." " That " 
is a rel. pron., relating to the two antecedents, " man " and 
" house," and used instead of " who " or " which," according 
to Note 13, Eule VIII. (quote Note), pi. n., according to Note 
2, Eule VIII. (quote Note), and obj. c, governed by the verb 
"saw," according to Eule III. (Quote.) 

" Give me what I want." "What" is a rel. pron., relating 
to the object of "give," understood. It is in the n. g., sing, n., 
3d p., and is in the obj. c, object of the verb "want," accord- 
ing to Eule III. (Quote.) 

Exercises. 
In the following sentences, name the pronouns. To which 
class of pronouns does each belong? Name the gender, num- 



IIVLE V11L—TBE PRONOUN. 137 

ber, person, and case of each of the personal pronouns. Name 
the antecedent of each of the personal pronouns. Name the 
clause which is introduced by each relative pronoun. In re- 
lation to each clause, state whether it is used in an adjectival 
sense, in an adverbial sense, or as a substantive or noun. 
Divide each of the sentences containing a relative pronoun 
into two or more separate sentences. Parse all the Pronouns, 
Subjects, Verbs, Possessives, Objectives, and Prepositions, cor- 
recting the sentences where necessary : 

He only who is active and industrious can experience real 
pleasure. 

He who is a stranger to industry m^y possess wealth, but he 
cannot enjoy it. 

Trust not him whose friendship is bought with gold. 

[Supply relatives]. Here is a bird's nest I found in the 

woods. is made of straw and moss, the old birds 

find in the fields. 

The multitude seek pleasure as its chief good. 

The Board of Education has just published their annual 
report. 

If your rudeness and noise continue, it will effectually 
hinder you from gaining any benefit. 

A lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or 
murder. 

The family of Adam include the whole human race ; you and 
I are a part of them. 

The silent circle fans itself in-doors, while the coachman 
without is famished with cold. 

It appears to have been John and James who were guilty. 

What is it that vexes you ? 

The moon shed her pale light over the landscape. 

Lay up in thy heart what you have now heard. 

Do unto others as thou wouldst have them do unto you. 

The army had marched many miles and were resting quietly, 
when they were surprised by the enemy. 

[Supply relatives.] The ship I saw had a cargo 

was very valuable ; its captain was a man every member 

of the crew obeyed, though was composed of men of the 

worst character. 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Who, who ever had a man or a beast, which served him 
faithfully, would say, it is they who should thank me ; I have 
nothing for which to feel grateful. 

Solomon was the wisest man whom the world ever saw T . 

It is the same picture which you saw before. 

All which beauty, all which wealth e'er gave. 

Who, who has any sense of religion, will argue thus ? 

The lady and the lapdog which we saw in the window. 

The king dismissed his minister without any inquiry, who 
had never before been guilty of so unjust an action. 

The tiger is a beast of prey who destroys without pity» 

This is the friend which I love. 

This is the vice whom I hate. 

The infant whom you see in the cradle is sick. 

Who of those men came to his assistance ? 

Thou art the man who has done the crime, and I who suffers 
the penalty, am innocent. 

Take that book to the library, which I left on my table. 

There was a bird caught by the fox, which was web-footed. 

The criminal was hung by the sheriff, who committed this 
shocking murder. 

That officer was selected to arrest the thief, in whom the 
Mayor placed the utmost confidence. 

This soldier was never rewarded by his captain, who was the 
bravest private in his company, because he differed with him 
in politics. 

Whatsoever he doeth shall prosper. 

[Supply antecedent.] Who steals my purse, steals trash. 

A man who is virtuous will be honored. 

[Supply relative.] The house you live in was built fifty 
years ago. 

The prize, which you won, shall be given you. 

Baltimore, in which you live, is a city of the first class. 

Whoever forgets a benefit is an enemy to society. 

I see that you have attended to the business. 

He said that he would succeed. 

That he would succeed was evident to all who knew him. 

[Supply relatives.] The house I live in and the furniture it 
contains are the products of the industry of the many toil- 
some hours I spent in active business. 



RULE VIIL—THE PRONOUN. 139 

[Supply antecedent.] Who tempers the wind to the shorn 
lamb, will take care of me. 

[Supply antecedent.] Whom I respect I obey, not those I 
have no confidence in. 

The legislature holds its meetings in Harrisburg ; my brother 
is a member of it. 

Either my father, or any other man could have had the right 
to express their opinions. 

Hunger or thirst I can bear ; they give pain to the body ; 
but the pangs of a guilty conscience I cannot bear. 

She or Mary must have left their candle burning. 

The jury were divided in their opinion. 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE IX. 
An Article modifies the Noun to which it 

Relates. 

notes. 

1. The noun to which the article relates is sometimes 
omitted; as, "Turn neither to the right nor to the left," 
meaning, " Turn neither to the right side nor to the left side." 
In such cases, supply the noun, and parse the article accord- 
ing to the Eule, as modifying the noun thus supplied. 

2. If there is an adjective before the noun, the article must 
precede the adjective ; as, "A virtuous man," not " Virtuous a 
man." If the adjective before the noun is all, such, many, what, 
or both , or if the adjective is preceded by too, so, as, or how, the 
article must come after the adjective; as, "All the men," 
" Such a sight," " Too serious an undertaking." 

3. When two or more connected adjectives relate to the 
same word, the article is used before the first adjective only; 
as, "A red and white flag," meaning one flag, partly red and 
partly white. But, when the adjectives relate to different 
words, the article is used before each adjective ; as, " A red 
and a white flag," meaning two flags, one red and one white. 

4. In using the comparative with than, if the nouns before 
and after "than" both refer to the same word, the article 
should be used before the first noun only ; as, " He is a better 
speaker than writer;" but, if the nouns refer to different 
words, the article should be used before each noun ; as, "A 
man makes a better soldier than a woman." 

5. A or an is used with nouns in the singular number only ; 
as, "A man." The exceptions to this are apparent rather than 
real. Thus, "A few things," means a certain number of things, 
and not more ; "A thousand men " means one thousand of 
men, and not two thousand. The a should be parsed as re- 
lating to the words "few," and "thousand," used as nouns 
in the singular, and the word following governed by of under- 
stood. 

6. A marked difference of meaning is produced by the use 
or the omission of a before the words few and little. "He 
has a little decency," means he has at least some." " He has 
little decency," intimates a doubt whether he has any. 



RULE IX.— THE ARTICLE. 141 

7. A is often an abbreviation for some other short word, 
such as at, in, on; as, " His greatness is a ripening." In such 
cases the a is not an article, but a preposition, and is to be 
parsed accordingly. 

8. "The more you examine the book, the better you will like 
it." In such expressions, the article must be parsed as limit- 
ing the adverb. 

9. The article should be used before each of two or more 
nouns connected by or or nor ; as, "Either the teacher or the 
pupil was in fault." 

Model for Parsing. 

"James wrote a letter." "A" is the ind. art., modifying 
the noun " letter." to which it relates, according to Rule IX. 
(Quote.) 

Exercises. 

Name the subject and the predicate in each of the following 
sentences. Name the modifiers of each. Add clauses to each 
of the subjects. Parse all the Articles, Pronouns, Subjects, 
Verbs, Possessives, and Objectives, correcting the sentences 
where necessary : 

At first the enemy gave way, but afterward he repulsed the 
left of our line. 

Time destroys both the great and the small. 

Glory to God in the highest. 

A too severe discipline is tyranny. 

The banner of the United States is a red, a white, and a blue 
flag. 

Fire is a better servant than a master. 

He is a better poet than a historian. 

A rosy-faced and pale girl were seen on the right of the 
room. 

Truth is a mightier weapon than sword. 

Disease is a greater destroyer than earthquake. 

Mr. C, having tried the stage and pulpit, was found to be a 
better minister than an actor. 

He had a few pupils, who came twice a week to receive his 
lessons. They preferred this to going a hunting, 

The louder he spoke, the less he was heard, and the noise 
made by the audience became the greater. 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

He who uses profane language has a little decency. 

He who merely is ashamed of soiled clothes, shows thereby 
that he has little decency. 

He was such a tyrant that a few persons mourned at his 
death. 

As everybody knew him to be a thief, a few persons intrusted 
their goods to him. 

Neither the Old nor the New Testaments contain the remark 
which you have quoted. 

That figure is a sphere, a globe, or a ball. 

What sort of a thing is it ? 

Is that ribbon in a good taste ? 

He lives in the midst of a thick woods, and you will be 
compelled to go a great distance in order to find him. 

Not a word was spoken, nor hint given. 

There are two voices, the Active and Passive. 

The light and the worthless kernels will not grow. 



RULE X.—THE ADJECTIVE. 143 



RULE X. 

An Adjective modifies the Noun or the Pro- 
noun to which it Relates. 

NOTES. 

1. The noun to which the adjective relates is sometimes 
omitted; as, " Of many evils, choose the least," meaning, " Of 
many evils, choose the least evil." In such cases, supply the 
omission, and parse the adjective according to the Rule, as 
modifying the noun thus supplied. 

2. An adjective sometimes modifies a verb in the infinitive 
mood, or a part of a sentence, used as a noun; as, "To use 
profane language is both foolish and wicked J 1 In such cases 
the adjective should be parsed as modifying the infinitive 
verb, or the part of a sentence used as a noun. 

3. The infinitive mood and the participle are sometimes 
found with an adjective after them not modifying any partic- 
ular noun, but used indefinitely ; as, " To be good is the surest 
way of being happy." " Good," here, is to be parsed by saying 
that it is an adjective used indefinitely after the infinitive. In 
like manner, "happy" is used indefinitely after the participle. 

4. When an adjective expresses any number more than one, 
the noun or pronoun to which it relates must be plural ; as, 
" Ten pounds," not " Ten pound." Some nouns, however, have 
a plural meaning with a singular form ; as, " Ten sail of the 
line." In such instances the plural form of the noun is not 
required. 

5. When two adjectives precede a noun, both expressing 
number, one of them may express the idea of unity, the other 
that of plurality; as, "One hundred men," "The first ten 
lines." In these instances, the several things are considered 
in their aggregate capacity, as forming one whole. The rule 
of construction is to use the singular adjective before the 
plural one ; as, " The first ten lines," not " The ten first lines." 

6. By an idiom of the English language, many is sometimes 
used before the singular with a prefixed ; as, " Many a flower." 

7. The comparative degree refers to two objects, the super- 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

lative to more that two ; as, " John is the taller of the two," 
" James is the tallest of the three boys." 

8. The comparative considers the objects compared as be- 
longing to different classes ; as, " Eve was fairer than any of 
her daughters. 11 The superlative considers the objects as be- 
longing to one class ; as, " Eve was the fairest of women 11 

9. Double comparatives and superlatives are improper. 
Thus, " A worser man," should be, " A worse man ; " " The 
most politest boy," should be, "The politest boy." 

10. Some adjectives express a quality incapable of increase 
or diminution ; as, chief, extreme, universal. In such cases, the 
comparative and superlative terminations should not be used. 

11. Adjectives should not be used for adverbs, that is, to 
modify verbs, adverbs, or other adjectives. "He speaks cor- 
rect," should be, " He speaks correctly ; " " A sufficient long 
time," should be, " A sufficiently long time ; " " He came re- 
markable soon," should be, " He came remarkably soon." 

12. Sometimes the adjective seems to modify a verb; as, 
" The egg is boiled hard, 11 " The apple tastes sweet, 11 " The board 
looks smooth, but it is rough." Here the meaning is, " The egg 
is boiled until it is hard ; " " The apple tastes as if it were 
sweet ; " " The board looks as if it were smooth." As. the 
quality relates to the noun and not to the verb, the word is 
an adjective, and should be so parsed. 

13. In poetry, an adjective is sometimes used in the sense 
of an adverb; as, "Slow rises merit when by poverty op- 
pressed." In these cases, the word is an adverb, and should 
be so parsed. 

14. An adjective is sometimes used as a noun ; as, " None 
but the brave deserve the fair; 11 "All partial evil is but uni- 
versal good. 

Model for Parsing. 
" James wrote a long letter." " Long " is an adj., in the pos. 
deg. ("long, longer, longest"), modifying the noun "letter," 
to which it relates, according to Rule X. (Quote.)] 

Exercises. 
Name the subject and predicate in each of the following sen- 
tences. Name the single words which modify (he subjects, 



RULE X.—THE ADJECTIVE. 145 

Name such as modify other nouns, not used as subjects. Name 
the phrases found in the sentences. How used ? Name the 
pronouns, and state the attributes of each. Name the clauses. 
Parse all the Adjectives, Articles, Pronouns, Subjects, Verbs, 
Possessives, and Objectives, correcting the sentences where 
necessary : 

A great reward has been offered for the detection of the 
criminal. 

The best men are liable to occasional infirmities of temper. 

To err is human, to forgive, divine. • 

They left me happy on the rivers' brink. 

The notary public resides on Green Street. 

Iron is more useful than all the metals. 

The likeness is remarkable. 

That is a remarkable good likeness which you see on the 
wall. 

His insolence was most insufferable. 

Now Israel loved Joseph more than all his children, because 
he was the son of his old age. 

Of all other writers, he was the least understood. 

To repine at the prosperity of others is despicable. 

To be ever active in laudable pursuits is highly meritorious. 

There are six foot of water in the hold. 

Rhode Island is the smaller of the United States. 

Spain at one time possessed a greater commerce than any 
nation in Europe. 

The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the faster the 
lesser weight it carries. 

Sing the three first and the last stanzas of the hymn. 

There is no more universal sentiment than this. 

Virtue confers the supremest dignity on man. 

He writes elegant. She sings sweet. 

To drink wine to excess is destructive of health. 

To practise virtue is more acceptable to God than the sacri- 
fice of bullocks or of rams. 

To be wise to-day is the way to commence to be wise. 

To remain ignorant in a land like ours is inexcusable. 

The evil that men do lives after them ; the good is often 
buried with them. 

10 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The vain, the wealthy, and the proud, are not the proper 
persons to be imitated. 

" Then give Humility a coach and six." 

That style of dress is more admired by some than this. Let 
each lady indulge their own taste. 

Those who go to war must expect to suffer many privations ; 
some will die, and others lose their limbs. 

Every station in life has its cares. 

The hay is sufficient for ten heads of horses, allowing twenty 
pound to each horse. 

The ten first men marched two by two. 

Consumption is the most destructive of the other diseases, 
and more common than any disease in the United States. 

Walls of solid granite are no adequate protection against the 
enginery of modern warfare. 

What do you ask for them peaches ? 

This ribbon is more white than the other. 

She spoke in the most kindliest manner. 

Which is the largest number, the dividend or the quotient ? 

The two first rows of seats are reserved for the officers. 

The three last mails brought me no news. 

Bessie bought a new pair of gloves. 

China has the greater population of any nation. 

Which can run the fastest, your boy or mine ? 

An old pair of shoes were found on the highway. 



RULE XL— THE ADJECTIVE PRONOUN. 147 
RULE XL 

An Adjective Pronoun modifies the Noun or 
the Pronoun to which it Relates. 

NOTES. 

1. The Distributives and Demonstratives agree in number 
with the nouns to which they relate; as, "This sort of per- 
sons," not "These sort." The distributives, each, every, either, 
neither, are all singular. Of the demonstratives, this and that 
are singular, these and those plural. 

2. The personal pronoun should not be used for the adjec- 
tive pronoun; as, " Those books," not " Them books." 

3. Either is sometimes used improperly for each; as, " Nadab 
and Abihu took either of them his censer." Grammatically, 
this means that only one of them took a censer, whereas, the 
meaning intended is that they both did so. It should be 
" each." 

4. The noun is often omitted after adjective pronouns; as, 
" Let each do his duty," meaning, " Let each man do his duty." 
In such cases supply the noun, and parse as usual. 

5. None, according to its composition, is singular, meaning 
no one, yet it sometimes represents nouns in the plural as well 
as in the singular; as, "We hunted for berries, but found 
none" None is never used except when the noun to which 
it belongs is omitted. 

Model for Parsing. 

" James wrote this letter." " This " is a dem. adj. pron., mod- 
ifying the noun "letter," to which it relates, according to 
Eule XL (quote), and is in the singular number, to agree 
with "letter," according to Note 1, Rule XL (Quote.) 

Exercises. 

Name the subject and predicate in each of the following 
sentences. Name the single words which modify the subjects. 
Name such as modify other nouns not used as subjects. 
Which of these are adjective pronouns or pronominal adjec- 
tives? Name the phrases found in these sentences. How 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

used ? Parse all the Adjective Pronouns, Articles, Adjectives, 
Subjects, Verbs, Possessives, Objectives, Pronouns, and Prepo- 
sitions, correcting the sentences where necessary : 

Either of the men have the necessary qualification. 

Each of the boys had their books with them. 

Many of the men were hurt, but none were killed. 

Those men only are great who are good. 

Those men who despise the admonitions of their friends de- 
serve the evils which their own obstinacy brings upon them. 

Those kind of efforts are spasmodic. 

Neither of these five verbs can be neuter. 

Here are five apples, take either of them. 

Give the grocer the memoranda, and tell him those molasses 
bought yesterday was not the kind I asked for. 

Those sort of people fear nothing. 

Who broke this scissors ? 

He adhered strictly to his profession, and by those means 
gained success. 

Virtue and vice are as opposite to each other as light and 
darkness ; this ennobles the mind, that debases it. 

Them kind of favors did real injury. 

The king of Israel and the king of Judah sat either of them 
on his throne. 

Such as are diligent will be rewarded. 

Some are naturally timid, others are bold and active. 

Give to each his own. 

This oats is of those species called wild oats. 

These sort of vegetable productions are considered mere 
weeds. 

In the Bible, tares and wheat are used to represent different 
kinds of men ; that, to denote the good, and this, the bad. 

Either side of that square field is of the same length as the 
three others. 

Some whom I considered my enemies assisted, while none 
really pitied me ; each one who rendered me assistance, did so 
because their conscience, and not their love for me, prompted 
them. 

The smallest of the twins seemed the more intelligent of 
the two children. 



RULE XL— THE ADJECTIVE PRONOUN. 149 

Samuel was the strongest of the two brothers, and Mary the 
neater of the other members of the family. 

It would be a queer world, if every one might do as they 
like. 

The silence of nature is more impressive, would we under- 
stand it, than any speech could be : it expresses what no 
speech can utter. 

The greatness of a gift cannot be determined by its absolute 
amount : it can be truly ascertained only by a moral standard. 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE XII. 

A Participle modifies the Noun or the Pro- 
noun to which it Relates. 

NOTES. 

1. The participle is often used as a noun, either in the nomi- 
native or in the objective case, and at the same time, as a part 
of a verb, it retains its government of the objective ; as, "Writ- 
ing letters is easier than writing compositions " (nom.) ; " In 
writing letters he soon became expert" (obj.). 

2. The participle used as a noun, is frequently found govern- 
ing another noun in the possessive case ; as, " Much depends 
on John's writing his letters rapidly." 

3. The participle is sometimes used simply as a noun ; as, 
" Avoid foolish talking and jesting." When so used, parse the 
word as a participial noun in the third person, neuter gender. 

4. The participle is sometimes used simply as an adjective ; 
as, " Singing birds abound in summer," " He is a learned man." 
When a participle is so used, call it a participial adjective, and 
parse it as any other adjective. 

5. When a participial noun has an article before it, it should 
have " of" after it ; as, "The learning of Greek," not "The learn- 
ing Greek." In such sentences, the article and the preposition 
should either both be used, or both omitted. The latter is by 
far the more common. 

6. When the article and the preposition are both used in con- 
nection with a participial noun, the meaning is usually the 
same as when they are both omitted. Thus, "The learning of 
languages," means the same as "learning languages." This, 
however, is not always the case ; as, " He confessed the whole 
in the hearing of three witnesses," " The court spent an hour in 
hearing the witnesses." It is perhaps impossible to give a rule 
which shall direct in all cases when to use and when to omit 
the article and the preposition. 

7. A participle of the verb to be may have a noun or a pro- 
noun after it in the same case as the one before it; as, 
"Thomas, being an apt scholar, w r on the favor of his teacher." 
This rule applies also to the participles of many other intransi- 



RULE XI L— THE PARTICIPLE. 151 

tive verbs, and likewise to the participles of the passive voice 
of some transitive verbs; as, "Solomon, while reigning king, 
built the temple, " " Washington, being appointed commander- 
in-chief , proceeded at once to Cambridge." 

8. A participle of the verb to be, when used as a participial 
noun, may have a noun after it used indefinitely; as, "His 
being a good 'penman soon gained him employment." Here, 
:( penman " is not the subject of " gained," nor is it in apposi- 
tion with anything understood before "being," but is used 
indefinitely after the participle "being." This rule applies 
also to the participles of many other intransitive verbs, and 
likewise to the participles of the passive voice of some transi- 
tive verbs; as, " Living a consistent Christian is not easy," 
" Being called a Roman was counted a great honor." 

9. A participle may be used indefinitely after the infinitive 
of the verb to be, used as a noun; as, " To be forever in one 
place, doing nothing, would be intolerable." " Doing," here, 
relates to no noun, but is used indefinitely. This rule ap- 
plies also to participles after the infinitive mood of many 
other intransitive verbs, and likewise to some transitive verbs 
in the passive voice ; as, " To remain doing nothing would be 
intolerable," " To be found stealing is a disgrace." 

10. When the noun to which a participle relates is in the 
nominative absolute, this fact should always be mentioned in 
parsing the participle. 

11. Care should be taken not to confound the past tense and 
the perfect participle; as, "He began to write," not, "He 
begun to write ; " " He did it," not " He done it ; " " He satu it," 
not " He seen it." 

12. Care should be taken not to use the past tense instead 
of the perfect participle after the auxiliaries to have and to be ; 
as, " He has gone home," not " He has went home; " " It was 
written, 11 not " It was wrote." 

Model for Parsing. 

"James, having written a letter, sent it to the Post-office." 
" Having written " is the comp. perf. part., active, of the irr. 
trans, verb " to write " (write, wrote, written), modifying the 
noun "James," to which it relates, according to Rule XII. 
(Quote.) . 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Exercises. 
Name the subject and the predicate in each of the following 
sentences. Name the phrases. Which of the phrases are in- 
troduced by a preposition ? Which by a participle ? Which 
of the participles in the sentences are used as subjects ? Which 
are used as objects of prepositions? As objects of transitive 
verbs ? Name the clauses. What is their use ? Parse the Parti- 
ciples, Subjects, Verbs, Objectives, Possessives, Prepositions, 
Articles, Adjectives, and Adjective Pronouns, correcting the 
sentences where necessary : 

Considering his age, he is very wise. 

By carefully reading your compositions, you may detect 
errors in spelling. 

Surprising news came from his home. 

A shattered oak stood on the brink of the river. 

It is freezing cold. 

The hail, rattling against the windows, aroused them. 

Knowledge, softened by good breeding, makes a man beloved 
and admired. 

Having finished his speech, he descended from the platform. 

The youthful poet, while walking alone in the woods, fell 
into a reverie. 

Precept has little influence, if not enforced by example. 

True honor, as defined by Cicero, is the concurrent approba- 
tion of good men. 

Much depends on the pupil observing the rules. 

What is the reason of this person dismissing his servant so 
hastily ? 

I remember it being done. 

The learning anything speedily requires great application. 

By the exercising our faculties they are improved. 

By observing of these rules you may avoid mistakes. 

This was a betraying the trust reposed in him. 

His being called a wit did not make him one. 

The atrocious crime of being a young man, I shall attempt 
neither to palliate nor to deny. 

The sun rising, darkness flees away. 

Thus repulsed, our final hope is flat despair. 

He soon begun to be weary of having nothing to do. 



BULE XIL—THE PABTICIPLE. 153 

He was greatly heated, and he drunk with avidity. 

I would have wrote a letter. 

He had mistook his true interest. 

The coat had no seam, but was wove throughout. 

The French language is spoke in every kingdom in Europe. 

Having taken much medicine, and continuing to grow worse, 
my distressed mother said that giving me medicine seemed 
useless. Travelling was then tried with encouraging signs of 
my growing better. 

His lesson being learned, and his other duties having been 
performed, he was to have a ride on horseback, he selecting 
the route to be taken. 

Breaking of windows by the throwing stones is a species of 
mischief which is as wrong as dishonesty. 

The pupil became attached to his teacher. 

The bells having rung, we departed. 

William done a gross act of injustice. 

The vultures, circling around, sailing, floating, showed by 
their actions the presence of food. 

The pastor, visiting a poor laborer, found him employed in 
reading the Scriptures in the original Greek. 

Having been educated a teacher, I must follow my pro- 
fession. 

When the Pilgrims had come to America, the streams were 
froze, the birds had flew to warmer regions ; the fierce wintry 
wind blowed; they had been drove from their comfortable 
homes. To forsake the land of their birth was indeed sad ; 
but to have forsook their faith, would have showed a want of 
sincerity and fortitude. 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



RULE XIII. 



An Adverb modifies the Verb, Adjective, or 
other Adverb to which it Relates. 

NOTES. 

1. Adverbs are usually placed before adjectives, after verbs, 
and often between the auxiliary and the verb ; as, " He is very 
attentive." " She behaves welly " They are much esteemed." 
This rule is far from being universal in its application. It is 
impossible to give any rule which shall determine the position 
of the adverb in all circumstances. 

2. Adverbs should not be used where adjectives are required, 
that is, to modify nouns or pronouns. Thus, " He dressed in a 
style conformable to the ruling fashion," not " comformably." 
"The dress looked pretty" not "prettily" "Pretty," here, is 
an adjective describing "dress," and does not modify the verb 
"looked." It does not express the manner of looking. 

3. From should not be used before hence, thence, and whence, 
because it is implied. Custom, however, has to some extent 
sanctioned the violation of this rule. 

4. Hither, thither, and whither were formerly used after verbs 
of motion. They are now used only on solemn occasions. 
Thus, "Come here," not "Come hither." 

5. Where and when are often incorrectly used instead of which 
and its adjuncts; thus, "The situation where I found him," 
should be " The situation in which I found him." " Since when 
I have not seen him," should be " Since which time I have not 
seen him. 

6. There is often used indefinitely, its only force being to 
introduce the verb; as, "There is truth in the old proverb." 
In such sentences, there does not mean in that place. 

7. How should not be used for that; " He said how he would 
do it," should be " He said that he would do it." 

8. No never qualifies a verb. When there is an ellipsis of 
the verb, no is sometimes incorrectly used instead of not ; as, 
" Will you walk or no f " It should be " not," as will be seen 
by supplying the ellipsis. Thus, " Will you walk, or will you 
no* walk?" 






RULE XIIL—TBE ADVERB. 155 

9. Nay, no, yea, yes, expressing simply negation or affirma- 
tion, contain in themselves a complete sense, and do not 
modify any verb. The same is true of Amen. 

10. Two negatives are improper, if intended to express the 
same negation. When so used, they destroy each other, and 
are equivalent to an affirmative. Thus, " I cannot by no means 
allow it," should be, " I can by no means allow it," or " I can- 
not by any means allow it." 

11. Sometimes, when one of the negatives (such as dis, in, 
un, im, etc.) is joined to another word, the two negatives form 
a pleasing and delicate mode of affirming; as, " His language, 
though simple, is not melegant," that is, " It is elegant." 

12. An adverb should not be placed between the infinitive 
and its auxiliary to. " He preferred to not go," should be, " He 
preferred not to go." " He determined to thoroughly under- 
stand it" should be "He determined to understand it 
thoroughly." 

13. An adverb is sometimes preceded by a preposition ; as, 
at once, for ever. In such cases the two words should be taken 
together and called an adverb or an adverbial phrase. 

Model for Parsing. 

"James wrote a letter hastily." "Hastily" is an adv. in 
the pos. deg. (hastily, more hastily, most hastily), modifying 
the verb " wrote," to which it relates, according to Rule XII. 
(Quote.) 

"A thoroughly bad man." "Thoroughly " is an adv. in the 
pos. deg. (thoroughly, more thoroughly, most thoroughly), mod- 
ifying the adj. "bad," to which it relates, according to Rule 
XII. (Quote.) 

Exercises. 

Name the subject and predicate in each of the following sen- 
tences. What single words modify the predicate? What 
phrases modify the predicate? What clauses modify the 
predicate? What adjectives, if any, are modified by single 
words? What phrases are found in the sentence? What 
kind ? What use ? Parse all the words in the following sen- 
tences except Conjunctions, correcting the sentences where 
necessary : 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The travellers stopped when the sun set, and resumed their 
journey when the light appeared in the east. 

Thou knowest that I reap where I sowed not. 

Where your treasure is, there will your heart be also. 

The maid was writing when the letter came. 

I will remain until you return. 

A very smart child may learn more rapidly than is desirable. 

Economy, prudently conducted, leads very rapidly to wealth. 

She is particularly beautiful. 

The most cautious are frequently deceived. 

We should not be overcome totally by present events. 

He spoke unaffectedly and forcibly, and was heard atten- 
tively by the whole assembly. 

He lived in a manner agreeable to the dictates of reason and 
religion. 

They hoped for a soon and prosperous issue to the war. 

He drew up a paper, where he too frequently represented 
his own merit. 

He left Philadelphia last December, since when he has not 
been heard of. 

Whether you study or no, you never know the lesson at the 
time of recitation. 

He did not say whether his father would consent or no. 

He will never be no taller. 

They could not travel no farther. 

Covet neither riches, or honors, or no such perishing things. 

It was cold exceedingly ; the north wind incessantly blew ; I 
have experienced seldom so severe a winter. 

This is an often error made by children in talking ; it is of 
seldom occurrence in writing. 

She looks coldly, she is not warm enough dressed. 

Some persons are of such a nature that they look cold upon 
those who treat them affectionate. 

He arrived at the house where I live, but started from 
thence immediately. 

The best of men not unfrequently are misled by the machina- 
tions of the crafty. 

The boy has been very ill, he looks bad. In my opinion, he 
will not recover. 



RULE XIV.— THE INFINITIVE. 157 

RULE XIV. 

The Infinitive Mood depends upon some Vekb, 
Adjective, or Noun. 

Explanation. — The infinitive limits and complements the 
meaning of the word on which it depends. " I desire to 
sleep," " Prone to sleep," " A time to sleep." Here, if we 
have not the infinitive, the meaning in each case is incom- 
plete. The words " to sleep," are needed, both to complete the 
sense of the word on which they depend, and to give the word 
its intended limitation. 

NOTES. 

1. The preposition to, which is used in making the form 
called the infinitive mood, and which is generally called the 
sign of the infinitive mood, is not to be parsed by itself, but 
with the verb. 

2. To, the sign of the infinitive, is usually omitted after the 
active voice of the verbs bid, dare (to venture), need, make, see, 
hear, feel, let, and some others; as, " I saw him do it." In the 
passive voice of these verbs, however, the " to " is usually ex- 
pressed ; as, " He was seen to do it." 

3. To, the sign of the infinitive, should not be separated from 
the verb by inserting any other word or words. Thus, " I am 
resolved to not go," should be "I am resolved not to go." 

4. The infinitive seems sometimes to depend upon other 
parts of speech, besides those enumerated in the rule. Thus, 
"Be so good as (conjunction) to read this letter." In such 
cases, the sentence is elliptical. The meaning is, "Be so 
good as you must be in order to read this letter." 

5. The infinitive is sometimes used apparently without de- 
pendence upon any word; as, "To speak plainly, I do not 
entirely approve your conduct." This construction also is 
elliptical. The meaning is " In order to speak plainly, I do 
not entirely approve your conduct." 

6. The infinitive mood is frequently used as a noun, and at 
the same time retains its government of the objective case. 
Thus, " To write letters is easy." Here, " to write," as a noun, 
is the subject of " is," and at the same time, as a verb, it gov- 
erns "letters." 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7. Tense of the Infinitive. — Whenever the action or event 
signified by the infinitive is contemporary or future with re- 
spect to the verb on which it depends, the present tense of 
the infinitive is required. Hence, verbs expressive of hope, 
desire, intention, or command, must invariably be followed by 
the present, and not the perfect infinitive. Thus, " I expected 
to have found him/' should be, " I expected to find him." 

Model for Parsing. 

" Henry expects to win the prize." " To win " is a trans, 
verb, irr. (Win, won, won), act. v., infin. m., pres. t., and de- 
pends upon the verb " expects," according to Kule XIV. 
(Quote.) 

Exercises. 

Name the subject and the predicate in each of the following 
sentences. Name all the single word modifiers of each. Name 
all the phrases. How used? Name the infinitives. What 
does each one modify ? Parse all the words in the following 
sentences, except the Conjunctions, correcting the sentences 
where necessary : 

A man anxious to reach home will aim to be at the station 
in time to secure his seat. 

A good man loves to do good. 

They have a wish to learn. 

He has written some things hard to be understood. 

The desire to be rich is one of the strongest of human 
desires. 

A man eager to learn the truth is not apt to fall into error. 

She is worthy to be loved. 

They need not to call her. 

I dare not to proceed so hastily. 

He bade me to go home. 

He was seen write the letter. 

It is the difference of their conduct which makes us to ap- 
prove the one, and to reject the other. 

He was seen do it, though I heard his father to tell him not 
to do it. 

Help me to finish this work, and you will not find the time 
to pass so slowly. 






RULE XIV.— THE INFINITIVE. 159 

1 cannot dig, to beg I am ashamed. 

The driver was to blame. 

Pride is harder to overcome than poverty. 

Please give me that book. 

I dare do all that may become a man ; who dares do more 
is none. 

It is cowardly to tell a lie. 

Hear him talk. 

He knows when to purchase. 

I did not intend for to hurt him. 

This is for to let you know how I am well. 

He begged to have been released from his prison. 

To live righteously, soberly, and godly, is required of all 
men. 

To be temperate in eating and drinking, to use exercise in 
the open air, and to preserve the mind from tumultuous emo- 
tions, are the best preservatives of health. 

I am not so stupid as to make such an error. 

To be candid with you, I must say, you did wrong. 

Not to leave you under the impression that I was one of 
your supporters, I tell you I did not vote for you. 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



RULE XV. 



A Conjunction connects the Words, Sentences, 
Phrases, or Clauses, between which it Stands. 

notes. 

1. The words connected by conjunctions must be of the same 
class. Nouns are connected with nouns, adjectives with ad- 
jectives, verbs with verbs, adverbs with adverbs, etc. Nouns 
and pronouns are here considered as belonging to one class. 

2. There is sometimes an ellipsis of one of the words or 
clauses, giving the appearance of a conjunction not truly con- 
nective; as, "That John has written the letter, is easily proved." 
Here, " that " seems simply to introduce a clause which is the 
subject of the verb. But by supplying the ellipsis, " The fact 
that John has written the letter," the true connective charac- 
ter of the conjunction appears. 

3. Words and clauses are often connected, not by a single 
conjunction, but by two conjunctions, or by a conjunction and 
an adverb, corresponding to each other ; as, " Give me neither 
poverty nor riches; ""The method proposed was defective, 
inasmuch as it did not provide the means for carrying the 
plan into effect." 

4. The following is a list of the principal conjunctions that 
have a corresponding conjunction or adverb : 

Neither, nor ; as, It is neither cold nor hot. 

Either, or; as, Either she or her sister must go. 

Whether, or; as, Whether he will do it or not, I can- 
not say. 

Though, yet; as, Though he was rich, yet for our 

sakes he became poor. 

If, then; as, If he speaks true, then you speak 

false. 

Both, and; as, I am debtor both to the Greeks 

and to the Barbarians. 

Not only, but also ; as, Not only his character, but also 

his life was at stake. 



RULE XV.— THE CONJUNCTION. 161 



So, H 



( as ; as, My land is as good as yours (equality). 

As, 1 so ; as, As the stars, so shall thy seed be 

( (equality or proportion). 

as ; He is not so wise as his brother (denying 

equality). 
thai ; I am so weak that I cannot walk (conse- 
quence). 

5. The comparative degree, and the words other, rather, and 
else, are usually followed by than; as, " John is greater than 
James." 

6. After than there is almost always an ellipsis of several 
words. In supplying these words, the latter clause must be 
analogous to or resemble the preceding ; as, " John has written 
more than James," meaning "John has written more than 
James has written" 

7. After than, contrary to analogy, whom is sometimes used 
instead of who ; as, "Satan, than whom none higher sat." 

8. Conjunctions usually connect the same moods and tenses 
of verbs, and the same cases of nouns and pronouns ; as, " He 
reads and writes well ; " "I saw him and her." 

9. When conjunctions connect verbs in the same mood 
and tense, the subject is usually not repeated; but when 
the verbs connected are in different moods or tenses, the 
subject should be used before each ; as, " He may return, but 
he will not remain." The subject is also often repeated 
when, in the progress of the sentence, we pass from the posi- 
tive form of expression to the negative ; from the negative to 
the positive ; or when a contrast is made ; as, " Though I ad- 
mire him greatly, yet I do not love him " (from pos. to neg.), 
" Though I do not love him, yet I admire him greatly " (from 
neg. to pos.), "Though he was rich, yet he became poor " (con- 
trast). 

Models for Parsing. 

"James and John are brothers." "And" is a conjunction, 
connecting "James" and "John," according to Kule XV. 
(Quote.) 

"It is neiJbher cold nor hot." "Neither" and "nor" are 
corresponding conjunctions, connecting "cold" and "hot," 
according to Rule XV., Note 3. 

11 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercises. 

Name the subject and predicate in each of the following 
sentences. Name the clauses in each. How connected ? Tell 
how each is used — principal or dependent? If dependent, 
what does it modify? Is it adverbial or adjectival in its use? 
Name all phrases, and tell what each modifies and give its 
use. Name all other modifiers. Parse all the words in the 
sentences, correcting and supplying ellipses where necessary : 

Forget the faults of others, and remember your own. 

Study universal rectitude, and cherish religious hope. 

Practise humility, and reject everything in dress, carriage, 
or conversation, which has any appearance of pride. 

If ye do these things, ye shall never fail. 

It is neither cold or hot. 

Neither despise the poor, or envy the rich. 

Though he slay me, so will I trust him. 

So as thy days, so shall thy strength be. 

He was so angry as he could not speak. 

He has little more of the scholar besides the name. 

He or me must go. Neither he nor her can attend. 

Anger glances into the heart of a wise man, but will rest 
only in the bosom of fools. 

To profess regard, and acting differently, mark a base mind. 

Rank may confer influence, but will not necessarily produce 
virtue. 

She was proud, though now humble. 

He is not rich, but is respectable. 

The story w T as not believed we were defeated. 

Wood is not durable iron. 

One hour is long another. 

He ate so much he became sick. 

As he treated others, he expected to be treated by 

them. 

Though he was severe with the vicious, he was lenient 

to those who tried to do right. 

It was done better by him than me. 

Washington was a better man than Napoleon . 

The teacher ought to know more than his scholars . 

I was your enemy, but now am your friend. 



RULE XV.— THE CONJUNCTION. 163 

He is his friend to-day, but may be his enemy to-morrow. 

Unless it blossoms in the spring, the tree will not bear fruit 
in autumn. 

The days in December, you know, are at their shortest, and 
therefore you must rise by the dawn, if you would have much 
daylight. 

Simon, son of Jonah, lovest thou me more than these ? 

What do ye more than others? 

Proportion is simple and compound. 

I cannot tell how the animal escaped without someone un- 
tying it, 

I will see if it is raining or not. 

He could not beg it nor borrow it. 

I shall neither depend on you nor him. 

The terms rich or poor enter not into their language. 

He sendeth rain, both on the just and unjust. 

Alfred than whom a greater king never reigned. 

His brother is taller than him. 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE XVI.— INTERJECTIONS. 

An Interjection has no Dependence upon 

other Words. 

notes. 

1. In parsing an interjection all that is necessary is to state 
what part of speech it is. 

2. Sometimes interjections have the appearance of govern- 
ing the objective case; as, "Ah me!" Such sentences are 
always elliptical, some verb or preposition being understood. 
In the expression, "Ah me!" the word pity or some other 
such word is understood. The sentence means, "Ah! pity 



me." 



-oO>^<0-©- 



II. ANALYSIS. 

1. Analysis treats of the separation of a sentence 
into the parts which compose it. 



-*oXX<x>- 



I. PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

A Sentence is a number of words put together so as 
to make complete sense ; as, " Man is mortal." 

A sentence may consist of a single word ; as, " Depart." 

The Essential Parts of a sentence are the Subject and 
the Predicate. 

The Subject is that of which something is affirmed. 

The Predicate is that which is affirmed or asserted of 
the Subject. 

In the sentence, "Man lives," man is the Subject, lives is 
the Predicate. 



ANALYSIS. 165 

There cannot be a sentence without a Subject, ex- 
pressed or understood. 

In the sentence, " Depart/ 7 the Subject is thou or you under- 
stood. 

There cannot be a sentence without a Predicate, ex- 
pressed or understood. 

A Subject and a Predicate, together, make a sentence. 

I. THE SUBJECT. 

Distinction of Grammatical Subject and Logical 

Subject. 

The Grammatical Subject is simply the noun or 
the pronoun which is the subject of the verb. 

Examples. — " Man lives." " The good old man still lives." 
" He lives." " He, the eloquent and able defender of the Con- 
stitution, is dead." In the first two examples, the Grammati- 
cal Subject is man; in the other two, it is he. 

The Logical Subject is not simply the noun or the 
pronoun which is the subject of the verb, but includes 
also all the attendant words which in any way modify 
the meaning of the subject. 

In the second example above, the Logical Subject is The 
good old man ; in the fourth example, it is He, the eloquent and 
able defender of the Constitution. 

The Logical Subject includes all the words of the 
sentence, which, taken together, form the subject of 
discourse. 

The Logical Subject is the one treated of in Analysis. 1 
The Subject is of three kinds, Simple, Complex, and 
Compound. 

1 In the remainder of this chapter, it will be understood that the 
term Subject, unless otherwise specified, means th« Logical Subject. 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

I. SIMPLE SUBJECTS. 

A Simple Subject is a single noun or pronoun, the 
subject of a verb, with no modifying word or words. 

The Logical Subject and the Grammatical Subject are here 
the same. 

Examples. — "James wrote the letter." "He wrote the 
letter." "Henry Clay rose in his place, and addressed the 
House." "Rivers flow into the sea." 

II. COMPLEX SUBJECTS. 

A Complex Subject is one in which the noun or pro- 
noun, which is the subject of the verb, is accompanied 
by some other word or words which in some way limit 
or modify its meaning. 

Example. — " The miserable man, overwhelmed with debt, and 
convicted of crime, lived a most unhappy life." Here the sub- 
ject is "man" with all the other accompanying words in 
italics. These accompanying words modify or limit the word 
"man." They all, taken together, form the subject of which 
the affirmation is made. 

Adjuncts to the Subject. 

Adjuncts are the accompanying words which make a 
Subject complex. 

The Adjuncts of the Subject are of three kinds, 
namely, Single Words, Phrases, and Clauses. 

A Phrase is a number of words, connected in meaning, but 
not containing a predicate, and not making by themselves com- 
plete sense. Phrases, in their office or use, are either adjectival 
or adverbial. 

A Clause is a part of a sentence containing a predicate with 
its subject, making by themselves complete sense, yet not inde- 
pendent, being used to modify some other part or parts of the 
sentence of which it is a part. 

Clauses, in their office or use, are either substantive, adjec- 
tival, or adverbial. 



ANALYSIS. 167 

The following are examples of each of the three kinds of 
adjuncts : 

1. Single Words. — "The good man has departed." Here 
"the" and "good" are single words, modifying the subject 
"man." 

2. Phrases. — " The good man, in the midst of his usefulness, 
has departed." Here the words, "in the midst of his useful- 
ness," form a modifying phrase. 

3. Clauses. — " The good man, who had gained great renown, 
departed." Here the words, " who had gained great renown," 
form a modifying clause. 

Ways in which Adjuncts Modify the Subject. 

The Subject is modified by Adjuncts, as follows : 

1. By an article ; as, " The man has arrived." 

2. By an adjective ; as " Good men are few." 

3. By a noun or pronoun in apposition ; as, " James Brown, 
artist, is dead " ; " Elizabeth herself has arrived." 

4. By a noun or pronoun in the possessive ; as, " Winter 1 s 
frosts have disappeared"; "Your time has come." 

5. By a participle ; as, " Brothers divided are a sad sight." 

6. By a verb in the infinitive ; as, " The time to study should 
not be lost." 

7. By a phrase, which may be — 

1. A preposition and its object; as, "The lessons of the 

day were not recited." 

2. Appositive ; as, " John, the Baptist, preached in the 

wilderness." 

3. Participial; as, "The sun, shining through the mist, 

looked white and ghastly." 
8. By a clause ; as, " Lessons which are easy are apt to be 
neglected " ; " The fear that he might be detected kept him from 
committing the crime." 

Model. — "A large increase of wealth might make him 
careless." 

In this sentence, 

1. The simple subject is increase. 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Its adjuncts or modifiers are the article a, the adjective 
large, and the preposition and its object, of wealth. 

3. The whole complex subject is a large increase of wealth. 

Exercises. — Name, (1) The simple subject, (2) The adjuncts 
or modifiers of the simple subject, (3) The whole complex sub- 
ject, in each of the following sentences : 

1. The thorough knowledge of Scripture helps us in under- 
standing all other truth. 

2. An anxious desire to do right was manifest in all his 
conduct. 

3. James's impetuous disposition, which ought to have been 
checked, was allowed to have free sway. 

4. The great apostle Paul himself was subject to calumny. 

5. A selfish desire for wealth, unchecked, is apt to pervert 
the moral principles. 

6. A neat little cottage, standing by the river's brink, at- 
tracted his attention. 

7. The tallest oak must bend before the mighty power of 
the wind. 

8. Henry, an English king, was considered to be a great 
scholar because he could write his name. 

Ways in which the Adjuncts of the Subject are 
Modified by other Adjuncts. 

Adjuncts of the Subject may themselves be modified by 
other words, as follows: 

1. A noun used as an adjunct of the subject may be modi- 
fied in all respects as the principal noun. 

Example. — " James Applegate, the old man that you spoke 
of, has left for parts unknown." 

2. An Adjective used as an adjunct of the subject may be 
modified, 

1. By a preposition and its object. 

2. By an infinitive. 

3. By an adverb. 

Examples. — "A man merciful in disposition." "A man 
quick to resent injury." " A very abundant harvest." 



ANALYSTS. 169 

Note. — An adverb used to modify an adjunct adjective may 
itself be modified, 

1. By another adverb. 

2. By a preposition and its object. 

Examples.— " Most thoroughly wicked"; "An essay re- 
plete, agreeably to expectation, with varied knowledge. 

3. A Participle, or an Infinitive, used as an adjunct of the 
subject, may be modified, 

1. By an object. 

2. By a preposition with its object. 

3. By an infinitive. 

4. By an adverb. 

Examples of the Participle.—" The man, having written 
the letter, mailed it." " The man, living in ease, became indo- 
lent." " The man, wishing to sleep, retired to his room." " The 
man, thoroughly frightened, fled from the house." 

Examples of the Infinitive. — " A desire to gain honor. 11 
" A desire to live in ease." " A resolution to cease to do evil." 
" A resolution to cease immediately from evil courses." 

NOTES. 

1. A Participle, or an Infinitive, with its adjuncts, may be 
used as a subject ; as, " Learning Latin thoroughly requires much 
time." " To learn Latin thoroughly requires much time." 
(See page 104, Note 1.) 

2. A Participle, when used as a subject, may be modified by 
a noun, or by an adjective, having no other grammatical de- 
pendence; as, "Being & hero requires courage," "Being heroic 
requires courage." 

3. An Infinitive, when used as a subject, may be modified 
by a noun, an adjective, or a participle, having no other gram- 
matical dependence ; as, " To be a hero requires courage," " To 
be heroic requires courage," "To live constantly fearing death 
requires patience." 

4. The Participle or Infinitive, in these cases, must relate 
to an intransitive verb, or to the passive voice- (See page 131, 
Note 3. 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Model. — " The desire of the aspiring boy to receive in his 
youth a suitable education was natural/ ' 
In this sentence, 

1. The simple subject is desire (" desire was natural "). 

2. The adjuncts or modifiers of this subject are the fol- 
lowing : 

(a) The article the (" the desire "). 

(b) The preposition and its object, of boy, ("the desire of 

boy"). 

(c) The infinitive to receive ("The desire of boy to re- 

ceive "). 

3. The adjuncts are themselves modified by other adjuncts, 
as follows : * 

(a) The adjunct of boy is modified by the article the and 

the adjective aspiring ("of the aspiring boy"). 

(b) The adjunct to receive is modified by the object educa- 

tion and the preposition and its object, in youth 
("to receive in youth education"). 

(c) The adjunct in youth is modified by the possessive pro- 

noun his ("in his youth "). 

(d) The adjunct education is modified by the article a and 

the adjective suitable ("a suitable education"). 

4. The whole complex subject is, The desire of the aspiring 
boy to receive in his youth a suitable education. 

Exercises. — Name (1) The simple subject, (2) Its adjuncts 
or modifiers, (3) The adjuncts of the adjuncts, (4) The whole 
complex subject, in each of the following sentences : 

1. The earnest conviction of Christopher Columbus that he 
would reach land by sailing westward led to the discovery of 
the new world. 

2. Paul, the apostle of the gentiles, rejoicing steadfastly in 
the hope set before him, suffered martyrdom. 

3. The birds with their bright feathers, sailing through the 
air, gladden the heart of man. 

4. Careless of fame, the youth pursues the even tenor of 
his way. 

5. In the centre was a vast hollow square filled with innu- 
merable flowering plants. 



ANALYSIS. 171 

6. Sirius, the dog star, is visible during the long winter 
nights. 

7. At the battle of Hastings, William of Normandy con- 
quered Harold, the Saxon king. 

Note. — The Subject is often transposed and placed after the 
predicate. 

III. COMPOUND SUBJECTS. 

A Compound Subject is one which consists of two 
or more subjects, either simple or complex, connected 
by one or more conjunctions. 

NOTES. 

1. Sometimes the separate subjects which form the Com- 
pound subject may make separate sentences, by repeating the 
predicate. 

Example. — " Lakes and oceans are large bodies of water." 
This may be separated into two sentences, thus : " Lakes are 
large bodies of water," " Oceans are large bodies of water." 

2. Sometimes the several subjects cannot be thus separated, 
because the predicate does not admit of it. 

Example. — " The Karitan river, the Delaware river, and 
the connecting canal, form a continuous line of inland navi- 
gation between New York and Philadelphia." Here the 
predicate is true of the compound subject as a whole, but not 
of any one of the single subjects taken by itself." 

3. This separation into distinct sentences may be made 
whenever the predicate is true of each subject taken by itself, 
but cannot be made when the predicate is true of the different, 
subjects only when taken together as a whole. 

4. Each of the separate subjects which form a compound 
subject may be complex, and as such may be modified by 
adjuncts in all the different ways already described under the 
head of Complex Subjects. 

Exercise. — " John, James, and George attended this school 
during last term." 

Add clauses to each of the subjects. 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

II. THE PREDICATE. 

Distinction of Grammatical Predicate and Logi- 
cal Predicate. 

The Grammatical Predicate is simply the finite verb 
to which the noun or the pronoun forming the gram- 
matical subject is nominative. 

Examples. — "The man lives." "The man has at length 
reached home safely." " Caesar was the conqueror of Gaul." 
The grammatical predicates here are the verbs lives, has reached, 
and was. 

The Logical Predicate is not simply the verb of 
which the noun or the pronoun is the subject, but it 
includes also all the attendant words which in any way 
modify the meaning of the verb. 

In the second example above, the Logical predicate is, has 
at length reached home safely; in the third example it is, was the 
conqueror of Gaul. 

The Logical Predicate, then, includes all the words 
which, taken together, tell what is said or affirmed of 
the subject. 

The Logical Predicate is the one treated of in Analysis. 

The Predicate is of three kinds, Simple, Complex, 
and Compound. 

I. SIMPLE PREDICATES. 

A Simple Predicate is a single finite verb, having 
some noun or pronoun for its subject. 

The Logical Predicate and the Grammatical Predicate here 
are the same. 

Examples. — "The sun has risen" "The illustrious gen- 
eral, who had been victorious in a hundred fights, was de- 
feated." 

II. COMPLEX PREDICATES. 

A Complex Predicate is one in which the predicate 



ANALYSIS. 173 

is accompanied by some other word or words which in 
some way limit or modify the meaning of the predicate. 

Example. — " The life of such a man will at length come to 
an end in the midst of shame and sorrow" Here the predicate 
is the verb " will come " with all the other accompanying 
words in italics. These accompanying words modify or limit 
the verbs "will come." They all, taken together, form the 
affirmation which is made in regard to "the life of such a 
man." 

Adjuncts to the Predicate. 

Adjuncts are the accompanying words which make a 
Predicate complex. 

The Adjuncts of the Predicate are of three kinds, 
namely, Single Words, Phrases, and Clauses. 

The following are examples of these three kinds of adjuncts : 

1. Single Words.—" The old man went back slowly" Here 
" back " and " slowly " are single words modifying the predi- 
cate "went." 

2. Phrases. — " The old man went to his home in great 
wrath" Here the phrases, "to his home," and "in great 
wrath," modify the predicate "went." 

3. Clauses. — " The man lived in the house which was upon 
the hill-side" Here the clause, " which was upon the hill-side," 
is one of the modifiers of the predicate " lived." 

Ways in which Adjuncts Modify the Predicate. 

The Predicate is modified by Adjuncts, as follows : 

1. By an adjective relating to the subject-nominative; as, 
" Good men are few" The adjective in this case is called the 
adjective-predicate, and is parsed as modifying the noun or 
pronoun which is the subject of the verb. 

2. By a participle relating to the subject-nominative; as, 
" He sat watching " 

3. By a noun or pronoun in the nominative after the verb; 
as, " The men have become drunkards" " It is I" The noun 
or pronoun in this case is called the nominative-predicate. 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note 1. — The nominative-predicate after a verb is some- 
times introduced by the conjunction as. " He was regarded 
as a scholar. " 

Note 2. — A noun or pronoun can be nominative-predicate 
only after intransitive verbs and after the passive voice of 
transitive verbs ; as, " He was called a villain." 

Note 3. — A noun-predicate after an infinitive may be in 
the objective, if the word which it represents is in the objec- 
tive; as, " We permitted them to become members." 

4. By a noun or pronoun which is the object of the verb; 
as, "We saw him" "We heard noises." 

Note. — An objective-predicate can occur only after a transi- 
tive verb in the active voice, or after an intransitive verb 
having the same meaning as the object; as, " He runs a race." 

5. By a preposition with its object ; as, " The man has gone 
to town." 

6. By a verb in the infinitive; as, "He continued to move." 

7. By an adverb; as, "He writes rapidly." 

8. By a clause ; as, " He asked that the time might be extended." 



■OO^O^- 



Model. — "No man can truly say that he is without sin." 
In this sentence, 

1. The simple predicate is can say. 

2. Its adjuncts or modifiers are the adverb truly, and the 
clause, that he is without sin. 

3. The whole complex predicate is, can truly say that he is 
without sin. 

Exercises. — Name, (1) The simple predicate ; (2) The ad- 
juncts or modifiers of the simple predicate ; (3) The whole 
complex predicate, in each of the following sentences : 

1. Wealth begets desire for wealth. 

2. Men of learning have often been unwise, 

3. The lark rises toward heaven singing. 

4. Fishes glide rapidly through water by swimming. 

5. Christopher Columbus believed after study that the earth 
was round. 



ANALYSIS. 175 

6. On the Pacific Ocean have swiftly come the rush and 
sweep of victory. 

Ways in which the Adjuncts of the Predicate are 
Modified by other Adjuncts. 

Adjuncts of the predicate may themselves be modified by 
other words. 

The several parts of speech, when used as adjuncts to the 
predicate, are modified in the same manner as the same 
words are when used as adjuncts to the subject. 

Model. — "The wrestler found, in the city, a young man 
willing to compete with him." 
In this sentence, 

1. The simple predicate is the verb found ("wrestler 
found"). 

2. The adjuncts or modifiers of this predicate are the fol- 
lowing : 

(a) The noun man, object of the verb ("wrestler found 
man "). 

(6) The preposition and its object, in the city (" The wrest- 
ler found in the city man "). 

3. The adjuncts are themselves modified by other adjuncts, 
as follows : 

(a) The adjunct man is modified by the article a and the 

adjectives young and willing ("a young man will- 
ing"). 

(b) The adjunct willing is itself modified by the infinitive 

to compete, and that again by the preposition and 
object with him ("willing to compete with him "). 

4. The whole complex predicate is, found in the city a young 
man willing to compete with him. 

Exercises. — Name (1) The simple predicate ; (2) Its ad- 
juncts or modifiers ; (3) The adjuncts of the adjuncts; (4) The 
whole complex predicate, in each of the following sentences : 

1. The silver mines of Mexico and Peru far exceed in value 
the whole of the European and Asiatic mines. 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. The distance from the earth to the sun is, in round 
numbers, one hundred millions of miles. 

3. The ordinary processes of direct instruction are of im- 
mense importance, presupposing in the mind to which they 
are applied an active co-operation. 

4. The faith of the first Christians expressed itself in 
vehement reaction against the prevailing tendencies of an 
exceedingly corrupt civilization. 

5. The genius for disorder, which shows itself in some young 
persons, is not a hopeful sign for their future comfort in life. 

6. We rejoice at the prospect of the young David of the 
New World stepping forth to hew down the Goliath of feu- 
dalism. 

Review Exercises. — Name, (1) The simple subject; (2) 
Its adjuncts ; (3) The adjuncts of the adjuncts ; (4) The whole 
complex subject, in each of the foregoing sentences, 

III. COMPOUND PREDICATES. 

A Compound Predicate is one which consists of two 
or more predicates, whether simple or complex, united 
by one or more conjunctions. 

NOTES. 

1. The several predicates which form the compound predi- 
cate may generally make separate sentences, by repeating the 
subject. 

Examples. — "The Atlantic ocean is the large body of 
water lying between Europe and America, and is traversed 
continually by steamers and sailing vessels." This may be 
separated into two distinct sentences, thus : " The Atlantic 
ocean is the large body of water lying between Europe and 
America." " The Atlantic ocean is traversed continually by 
steamers and sailing vessels." 

" Drunkenness enslaves and debases a man." This may be 
separated into the two sentences, " Drunkenness enslaves a 
man," " Drunkenness debases a man." 

2. Each of the separate predicates which form a compound 
predicate may be complex, and as such may be rnqdified by 



ANALYSIS. 177 

adjuncts, in all the different ways described under the head of 
Complex Predicates. 

Exercise. — " On the highway you will find bicycles, horse- 
men, carriages, and pedestrians." 

Add clauses to each modifier of the predicate. 



-»o^o^ 



II. KINDS OF SENTENCES. 

Two Ways of Classifying Sentences. 

Sentences are divided into classes or kinds, first in 
reference to their use, secondly in reference to their 
structure. 

I. Sentences, as to their use, are divided into three 
kinds, namely, Declarative, Interrogative, and Impera- 
tive. 

A Declarative Sentence is one which is used simply to 
declare or deny. 

A Declarative Sentence must always contain a verb in the 
Indicative or the Potential mood ; as, " He has not failed," 
"A life spent in doing good could not be a failure/'* 

An Interrogative Sentence is one which is used to ask a 
question. 

An Interrogative sentence must always contain a verb in 
the Indicative or the Potential mood; as, "Has he failed?' 7 
"Could a life spent in doing good be a failure?" 

An Imperative Sentence is one which is used to com- 
mand, exhort, entreat, or permit. 

An Imperative sentence must always contain a verb in the 
Imperative mood; as, "Write the copy according to your 
directions," "Father, forgive us," "Go, if you desire it." 

* In the preceding part of this chapter, explaining the Parts of a 
Sentence, all the examples given have been Declarative Sentences. For 
the purposes of illustration, they are more convenient than examples 
of the other kinds of sentences. 

12 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

II. Sentences, as to their structure, are divided into 
three kinds, Simple, Complex, and Compound. 

This second division of sentences requires a more distinct 
consideration. 

I. SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

A Simple Sentence is one which contains but one 
subject and one predicate. 

The subject and the predicate may have any kind or degree 
of complexity, except that arising from the introduction of a 
clause, and yet the sentence be simple. 

" The Delaware, the Earitan, and the connecting canal form 
a continuous line of navigation." This is a simple sentence, 
because, although three things are named, they constitute but 
one inseparable subject. The proposition would not be true, 
if made of any one of them separately. 

" Lakes and oceans are large bodies of water." This is not 
simple, because it may be resolved into the two sentences, 
" Lakes are large bodies of water," " Oceans are large bodies 
of water." 

"A canoe which is made of bark is easily broken." This is 
not simple, because the subject is modified by a clause. The 
sentence thus has two predicates, is made and is broken. 

" The man learned that the canoe was made of bark." 
This is not simple, because the predicate is modified by a 
clause. The sentence thus has two predicates, learned and 
was made. 

" The foolish young man, in the flush of a momentary ex- 
citement, rushing into the surging stream, at the time of high 
water, in a frail canoe made of bark, was rapidly whirled by 
the impetuosity of the descending current into the yawning 
abyss below." Here, both the subject and the predicate are 
very complex, yet the sentence is simple. It has but one sub- 
ject and one predicate. 

II. COMPLEX SENTENCES. 
A Complex Sentence is one which contains a simple 



ANALYSIS, 179 

sentence, with one or more clauses modifying either its 
subject or its predicate. 

"A life which is spent in doing good cannot be a failure. " 
This is a complex sentence, because the subject is modified by 
the clause, which is spent in doing good. The sentence thus has 
two predicates. 

" He was at the station when the train arrived." This is 
complex, because the predicate is modified by the clause, when 
the train arrived. The sentence thus has two predicates. 

III. COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

A Compound Sentence is one which contains two 
or more sentences, connected by one or more conjunc- 
tions. 

" He left home in good season, and was at the station when 
the train arrived." This is a compound sentence, containing 
the simple sentence, He left home in good season, and the com- 
plex sentence, [He~] was at the station when the train arrived, the 
two being connected by the conjunction and. 

The sentences which compose a Compound Sentence are 
called its Members. 

Every sentence may be resolved into six elements : two 
essential elements, the subject and the predicate ; two modi- 
fying elements, adverbial and adjectival; one connecting ele- 
ment, and the independent element. Any part or all of the 
last four elements named may be present in a sentence. 



-oOj^Oo- 



III. EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 

The terms Phrase, Clause, and Member frequently 
occur in speaking of Sentences. These terms have been 
already defined, but some additional illustration seems 
desirable. 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

I. PHRASES. 

A Phrase is a number of words, connected in mean- 
ing, but not containing a predicate, and not making by 
themselves complete sense. 

The principal Phrases are the following : 

1. The Appositional Phrase ; as, " June, the month of roses, 
has come at length." 

2. The Prepositional Phrase; as, "The cause of all this 
misery was bad temper." 

3. The Adjective Phrase; as, " Youth, full of expectation, is 
ever sanguine." 

4. The Participial Phrase ; as, ■" Living on vegetables, he was 
not strong." 

5. The Infinitive Phrase ; as, " He determined to live on vege- 
tables only." 

6. The Subject Phrase. This is where a Participial Phrase 
or an Infinitive Phrase is used as the subject of the verb; as, 
" Living on vegetables only is not conducive to strength," " To 
live on vegetables only is not conducive to strength." 

7. The Absolute Phrase ; as, "The king being dead, his eldest 
son succeeds to the throne." 

8. The Independent Phrase. This includes all mere ex- 
clamations, and all words addressed to persons or things, and 
not grammatically dependent upon the other parts of the 
sentence; as, u Out upon the villain! he deserves the halter," 
" Detestable villain, you deserve the halter." These exclama- 
tions and addresses often consist of a single word; as, "Villain, 
leave the house." 

II. CLAUSES. 

A Clause is a part of a sentence, containing a verb 
and its subject, making by themselves complete sense, 
yet not independent, being used to modify some other 
part or parts of that sentence of which it is a part. 

The principal Clauses are the following : 

1. The Eelative Clause ; as, " The man who is faithful to duty 
is to be honored. 



ANALYSTS. 181 

2. The Appositional Clause ; as, " The maxim, Put not off till 
to-morrow what can be done to-day, has much wisdom. " 

3. The Subject Clause; as, " That life is uncertain is known 
to all." 

4. The Object Clause ; as, " We know that Alaska is a cold 
country " 

5. The Adverbial Clause ; as, " He remained at the station 
until the train left." 

■ 6. The Conjunctional Clause ; as, " He will meet you at the 
station, if you come in time." 

III. MEMBERS. 

A Member is a sentence, complete and independent 
in itself, and not used to modify any word or clause, yet 
united by a conjunction with some other sentence to form 
a compound sentence. 

The difference between Members and Clauses is this : Mem- 
bers are parts of compound sentences; Clauses are parts of 
Complex sentences. A Member of a sentence may stand 
alone as an independent sentence ; a Clause, though contain- 
ing a subject and predicate, is always dependent upon some- 
thing outside of itself. 

"The sun, when it had risen, scorched the grass." "When 
it had risen " cannot stand alone as an independent sentence ; 
it is, therefore, a clause. 

" The sun had risen, and the grass was scorched." Here 
are two sentences, each complete and independent in itself, 
but both united to form a Compound sentence. These two 
sentences, taken separately, are called the Members of the 
Compound sentence. 

A complex sentence may be reduced to a simple sentence 
by abridging the dependent clause to the form of a phrase. 

The phrase may be reduced to the form of a single word 
modifier. 

Example. — A generous man has many admirers. A man 
of generosity has many admirers. A man who is generous 
has many admirers. 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The general rule for the abridgement of a dependent clause 
is to take away the connective and change the predicate either 
to an infinitive or to a participle. 

The abridged form thus becomes a participle, a participial 
noun, a nominative absolute, or an infinitive. 



h>0>©<0-»- 



GENERAL EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 

General Formula. — Name the kind of sentence, and why. 
Name the essential elements (the subject, and the predicate) in 
the first proposition. Name and analyze the modifying ele- 
ments (adverbial or adjective), if present in the proposition. 
Name the connective element and independent element, if 
present. Analyze the modifying elements. 

Model. — " The esteem of wise and good men is the greatest 
of all temporal encouragements to virtue ; and it is the mark 
of an abandoned spirit to have no regard for it." 

1. This is a declarative sentence, compound, and contains 
two members connected by the conjunction and. 

2. The first member, " The esteem of wise and good men is 
the greatest of all temporal encouragements to virtue," is a 
simple sentence. 

3. The subject, " The esteem of wise and good men," is com- 
plex. Analyze it according to the model on page 170. 

4. The predicate, " is the greatest of all encouragements to 
virtue," is complex. Analyze it according to the model on 
page 175. 

5. The second member, " it is the mark of an abandoned 
spirit to have no regard for it," is a simple sentence. 

6. Its subject, "it," is simple. 

7. Its predicate, " is the mark of an abandoned spirit to have 
no regard to it," is complex. Analyze it according to the 
model on page 175. 

Model. — "Are the stars, that gem the vault of the heavens 
above us, mere decorations of the night, or suns and centres 
of planetary systems ?" 

1. This is an interrogative sentence, compound, and con- 
tains two members connected by the conjunction or. 



ANALYSIS. 183 

2. The first member, " Are the stars, that gem the vault of 
the heavens above us, mere decorations of the night/' is a 
complex sentence, containing a relative clause. 

3. The subject, " the stars, that gem the vault of the heavens 
above us," is complex. Analyze, first, the subject and predi- 
cate of the clause, and secondly, the whole complex subject, 
according to the models on pages 170 and 175. 

4. The predicate, "are mere decorations of the night," is 
complex. Analyze it according to the model on page 175. 

5. The second member, supplying the ellipsis, " [are they] 
suns and centres of planetary systems," is a simple sentence. 
Analyze its subject and predicate according to the models 
already given. 

Exercises. — Analyze in the same manner the following 
sentences : 

1. The wind and rain are over ; calm is the noon of day ; 
the clouds are divided in the heaven ; and over the green hill 
flies the inconstant sun. 

2. The look that is fixed on immortality wears not a per- 
petual smile; and eyes, through which shines the light of 
other worlds, are often dimmed with tears. 

3. Books are standing counsellors and preachers, always at 
hand, and always disinterested; having this advantage over 
oral instructors, that they are ready to repeat their lesson as 
often as we please. 

4. Can we imagine that God's highest gifts of intelligence, 
imagination, and moral power, were intended to provide only 
for animal wants ? 

5. Do the voice of the wise, and the arm of the brave, and 
the blood of the patriot go for nothing in the wild conflict that 
is desolating the earth ? 

6. Wordsworth, in his poetry, works out wisdom as it comes 
from the common heart of man, and appeals to that heart in 
turn; causing us to recognize the truth, that there is some- 
thing in humanity which deserves alike our love and rev- 
erence. 

7. Give me a larger eye, and I will reveal to you another 
rank of worlds marshalled behind those whose shining hosts 
you now behold. 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

8. The poems of Ossian, which were first translated into 
English by Macpherson, are very remarkable. 

9. The Greeks may well boast of having produced a Euclid, 
whose works are esteemed even by the profoundest mathe- 
maticians of modern times. 

10. Cherish true patriotism, which has its root in benevo- 
lence ; but be not blind to the defects of your country, because 
you were born in it. 



K>XX< 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 

Directions.— Name the subject and the predicate in each 
of the following sentences. Do they agree in number and 
person ? Name the single word modifiers in each sentence. 
Are they adjectival or adverbial ? As such are they proper in 
form? Name the phrases. Are they adjectival or adverbial? 
Are they properly placed? Name the clauses. How are 
they used? Are they properly placed? Name the connec- 
tives. Name the independent words. Parse the words in 
each sentence, correcting the sentences where necessary. 



1. John writes pretty. 2. I shall never do so no more. 3. 
The train of our ideas are often interrupted. 4. Was you 
present at the last meeting? 5. He dare not act otherwise 
than he does. 6. Him whom they seek is in the house. 7. 
George or I is the person. 8. They or he is much to be 
blamed. 9. The troop consist of fifty men. 10. Those set of 
books was a valuable present. 

2. 

1. A pillar sixty foot high. 2. His conduct evinced the 
most extreme vanity. 3. These trees are remarkable tall. 
4. He acted bolder than was expected. 5. This is he who I 
gave the book to. 6. From whence came they ? 7. Who do 
you lodge with now ? 8. The Select Council was not unani- 
mous in its opinion. 9. I know not whom else are expected. 
10. Her father and her were at church. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 185 



1. The master requested him and I to read more distinctly. 
2. It is no more but his due. 3. Flatterers flatter as long, and 
no longer than they have expectations of gain. 4. John told 
the same story which you did. 5. This is the largest tree 
which I have ever seen. 6. Let he and I read the next chap- 
ter. 7. Those sort of dealings are unjust. 8. David the son 
of Jesse was the youngest of his brothers. 9. You was very 
kind to him, he said. 10. Well, said I, what does thou think 
of him now ? 

4. 

1. James is one of those boys that was kept in at school for 
bad behavior. 2. Thou, James, did deny the deed. 3. Neither 
good nor evil come of themselves. 4. We need not to be afraid. 
5. He expected to have gained more by the bargain. 6. You 
should have drank goat's milk. 7. It was him who spoke 
first. 8. Is it me that you mean? 9. Who did you buy your 
grammar from? 10. If one takes a wrong method at first 
setting out, it will lead them astray. 



1. Neither man nor woman were present. 2. I am more 
taller than you. 3. She is the same lady who sang so sweetly. 
4. After the most strictest notions of the sect, I lived a her- 
mit. 5. There was more sophists than one.. 6. If a person 
have lived twenty or thirty years, he should have some experi- 
ence. 7. If the officer or his secretary made the mistake they 
should be censured. 8. Fidelity and truth is the foundation of 
all justice. 9. When they had went out, they saw no man 
there save the farmer only. 10. All of which we hope for is 

sometimes denied to us. 

6. 

1. I wrote to, and cautioned the captain against it. 2. The 
girl's book it is torn in pieces. 3. It is not me who he is in 
love with. 4. He which commands himself, commands the 
whole world. 5. Nothing is more lovelier than virtue. 6. The 
peoples happiness is the statesmans honor. 7. Changed to a 
worser shape thou canst not be. 8. I have drunk no spirituous 
liquors this six years. 9. He is taller than me, but I am 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

stronger than him. 10. Solid peace and contentment consists 
neither in beauty or riches, but in the favor of God. 



1. After who is the King of Israel come out? 2. The recip- 
rocations of love and friendship between he and I have been 
many and sincere. 3. Abuse of mercies ripen us for judg- 
ment. 4. Peter and John is not at school to-day. 5. Three 
of them was taken into custody. 6. To study diligently, and 
behave genteelly, is commendable. 7. The enemies who we 
have most to fear are those of our own hearts. 8. Suppose 
life never so long, fresh accessions of knowledge may still be 
made. 9. Surely thou who reads so much in the Bible, can 
tell me what became of Elijah. 10. Neither the master nor 
the scholars is reading. 

8. 

1. Trust not him, whom, you know, is dishonest. 2. I love 
no interests but that of truth and virtue. 3. Every imagina- 
tion of the thoughts of the heart are evil continually. 4. No 
one can be blamed for taking due care of their health. 5. The 
product of the silver mines of Mexico and Peru far exceed 
those of Europe and Asia. 6. I have read Popes Homer, and 
Drydens Virgil. 7. He that is diligent you should commend. 

8. There was an earthquake which made the earth to tremble. 

9. He was very much made on at school. 10. Which is the 
most northern division of the Eastern continent, Asia or 
Europe ? 

9. 

1. They ride faster than us. 2. Was it him who came last? 
Yes, it was him. 3. I shall take care that no one shall suffer 
no injury. 4. Every man should act suitable to his character 
and station in life. 5. His arguments were exceeding clear. 
6. I only spoke three words on that subject. 7. The ant and 
the bee sets a good example before dronish boys. 8. Both 
candidates are popular men, and it is quite doubtful who the 
people will select for the office. 9. Let every chair, every 
book, and every slate, be put in their places. 10. The trial is 
over and the jury have rendered a verdict of guilty. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES, 187 

10. 

1. Evil communications corrupts good manners. 2. Han- 
nibal was one of the greatest generals whom the world ever 
saw. 3. The middle station of life seems to be the most ad- 
vantageously situated for gaining of wisdom. 4. These are the 
rules of grammar, by the observing which you may avoid mis- 
takes. 5. His principal amusement and occupation were read- 
ing. 6. My exercises are not well wrote, I do not hold my 
pen well. 7. Grammar teaches us to speak proper. 8. She 
accused her companion for having betrayed her. 9. I will not 
dissent with her. 10. Who shall I give it to ? 

11. 

1. Who are you looking for? 2. That is a book which I am 
much pleased with. 3. That picture of the emperor's is a very 
exact resemblance of him. 4. Everything that we here enjoy, 
change, decay, and come to an end, 5. It is not him they 
blame so much. 6. No people has more faults than they that 
pretend to have none. 7. The laws of Draco is said to have 
been wrote with blood. 8. It is so clear, or so obvious, as I 
need not explain it. 9. She taught him and I to read. 10. 
The greater a bad man's accomplishments are, the more dan- 
gerous he is to society, and the more less fit for a companion. 

12. 

1. Each has their own faults, and every one should endeavor 
to correct their own. 2. Let your promises be few, and such 
that you can perform. 3. His being at enmity with Csesar 
and Antony were the cause of perpetual discord. 4. Their 
being forced to their books in an age at enmity with all re- 
straint have been the reason why many have hated books all 
their lives. 5. A girl is wanted who can do the work of a 
small family, with good reference. 6. It was his duty to have 
interposed his authority in an affair of so much importance. 
7. He spent his whole life in the doing good. 8. Every gentle- 
man who frequented the house, and conversed with the 
erectors of this occasional club, were invited to pass an even- 
ing when they thought fit. 9. The winter has not been so 
severe as we expected it to have been. 10. A lampoon, or a 
satire, does not carry in them robbery or murder. 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

13. 

1. She and you were not mistaken in her conjectures. 2. My 
sister and I, as well as my brother, are employed in their re- 
spective occupations. 3. He repents him of that indiscreet 
action. 4. It was me, and not him, that wrote it. 5. Art 
thou him ? 6. I am a man who approves of wholesome disci- 
pline, and who recommend it to others ; but I am not a person 
who promotes severity, or who object to mild and generous 
treatment. 7. Prosperity, as truly asserted by Seneca, it very 
much obstructs the knowledge of ourselves. 8. To do to 
others as we would that they should do to us, it is our duty. 

9. This grammar was purchased at Ogle's the bookseller's. 

10. The council was not unanimous. 

14. 

1. Who spilt the ink upon the table? Him. 2. Who lost 
this book ? Me. 3. Whose pen is this ? Johns. 4. There is, in 
fact, no impersonal verbs in any language. 5. A man may 
see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well as read 
them in a description. 6. I had no sooner placed her at my 
right hand, by the fire, but she opened to me the reason 
of her visit. 7. A prudent wife, she shall be blessed. 8. The 
house you speak of, it cost me five thousand dollars. 9. Not 
only the counsel's and attorney's, but the judge's opinion also 
favored his cause. 10. The vicious inclined dog was shot before 
he had bit any of the children. 

15. 

1. This palace has been the Grand Sultan's Mahomet's. 2. 
They did not every man cast away the abomination of their 
eyes. 3. Whose works are these? They are Cicero, the most 
eloquent of men's. 4. The mighty rivals are now at length 
agreed. 5. The time of William making the experiment at 
length arrived. 6. If we alter the situation of any of the 
words, we shall presently be sensible of the melody suffering. 

7. This picture of the king's does not much resemble him. 

8. These pictures of the king were sent to him from Italy. 

9. I offer observations, that a long and checkered pilgrimage 
have enabled me to make on man. 10. Clelia is a vain woman, 
who, if we do not natter, she will be disgusted. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 189 

16. 

1. The orators did not forget to enlarge themselves on so 
popular a subject. 2. He acted conformable with his instruc- 
tions, and cannot be censured justly. 3. No person could 
speak stronger, nor behave nobler, than our young advocate, 
for the cause of true religious toleration. 4. They were studious 
to ingratiate with those who it was dishonorable to favor. 5. 
The house framed a remonstrance, where they spoke with 
great freedom of the king's prerogative. 6. Neither flatter or 
contemn the rich or the great. 7. Many would exchange 
gladly their honors, beauty, and riches, for that more quiet 
and humbler station, which thou art now dissatisfied' with. 

8. High hopes and florid views is a great enemy to tranquillity. 

9. Many persons will not believe but what they are free from 
prejudices. 10. I will lie me down in peace, and take my rest. 

17. 

1. This word I have only found in Spenser. 2. The king 
being apprised of the conspiracy, he fled from Jerusalem. 3. 
A too great variety of studies dissipate and weaken the mind. 

4. James was resolved to not indulge himself in such a cruel 
amusement. 5. They admired the countryman's as they 
called him, candor and uprightness. 6. The pleasure or 
pain of one passion differ from those of another. 7. The 
court of Spain, who gave the order, were not aware of the 
consequences. 8. There was much spoke and wrote on each 
side of the question ; but I have chose to suspend my decision. 
9. Religion raises men above themselves ; irreligion sinks them 
beneath the brutes; that binds them down to a poor pitiable 
speck of perishable earth ; this opens for them a prospect to 
the skies. 10. Temperance and exercise, howsoever little they 
may be regarded, they are the best means of preserving health. 

18. 

1. To despise others on account of their poverty, or to value 
ourselves for our wealth, are dispositions highly culpable. 2. 
As his misfortunes were the fruit of his own obstinacy, a few 
persons pitied him. 3. They were judged every man accord- 
ing to their works. 4. Riches is the bane of human happiness. 

5. When Garrick appeared, Peter was for some time in doubt 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

whether it could be him or not. 6. The company was very 
numerous. 7. Robert Burns' poetry was remarkable. 8. 
Chambers' Cyclopaedia is a valuable work. 9. They were 
obliged to contribute more than us. 10. The Barons had little 
more to rely on, besides the power of their families. 

19. 

1. The sewers must be kept so clear, as the water may run 
away. 2. Such among us who follow that business should 
abandon it at once. 3. No body is so sanguine to hope for it. 
4. She behaved unkinder than I expected. 5. Agreeable to 
your request I send this letter. 6. She is exceeding fair. 7. 
Thomas is not as docile as his sister. 8. There was no other 
book but this. 9. He died by a fever. 10. My sister and I 
waited till they were called. 

20. 

1. The friends and amusements which he preferred cor- 
rupted his morals. 2. Henry, though at first he showed an 
unwillingness, yet afterwards he granted her request. 3. 
Him and her live very happily together. 4. She invited Jane 
and I to see her new dress. 5. She uttered such cries that 
pierced the heart of every one who heard them. 6. Maria 
is not as clever as her sister Ann. 7. Though he promised 
never so solemnly, I can not believe him. 8. The full moon 
was no sooner up, in all its brightness, but he opened to them 
the gate of paradise. 9. It rendered the progress very slow 
of the new invention. 10. This book is Thomas', that is James. 

21. 

1. Who, who has the judgment of a man, would have drawn 
such an inference ? 2. George was the most diligent scholar 
whom I ever knew. 3. I have observed some children to use 
deceit. 4. He durst not to displease his master. 5. The hope- 
less delinquents might, each in their turn, adopt the expostu- 
latory language of Job. 6. Several of our English words, some 
centuries ago, had different meanings to those they have now. 
7. With this booty, he made off to a distant part of the coun- 
try, where he had reason to believe that neither he nor his 
master were known. 8. Who is the book for? 9. Which of 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 191 

the two masters, says Seneca, shall we most esteem ? He who 
strives to correct his scholars by prudent advice and motives 
of honor, or another who will lash them severely for not re- 
peating their lessons as they ought! 10. But she always be- 
haved with great severity to her maids ; and if any one of 
them were negligent of their duty, or made a slip in their 
conduct, nothing would serve her but burying the poor girl 

alive. 

22. 

1. They that honor me, I will honor. 2. Bring Charles' 
book with you, when you come. 3. The first Christians of 
the gentile world made a simple and entire transition from a 
state as bad, if not worse, than that of entire ignorance, to the 
Christianity of the New Testament. 4. The Duke had not 
behaved with that loyalty as was expected. 5. Milton seems 
to have been well acquainted with his own genius, and to 
know what it was that nature had bestowed upon him more 
bountifully than upon others. 6. He only promised me a 
loan of the book for two days. 7. I once intended to have 
written a poem. 8. The specimens were furnished sooner 
than we expected them to have been. The three first were 
approved, the three last were reserved for a more strict ex- 
amination. 9. It is then from a cultivation of the perceptive 
faculties, that we only can attain those powers of conception 
which are essential to taste. 10. Every one, man or woman, 
thinks their own opinion is right ; if they thought it wrong, it 
would no longer be their opinion ; but there is a wide differ- 
ence between regarding ourselves infallible, and being firmly 
convinced of the truth of our creed. 

23. 

1. Conversation is the business, and let every one that please 
add their opinion freely. 2. There are many more shining 
qualities in the mind of man, but there are none so useful, as 
discretion. 3. Frequent commission of crimes harden the 
heart. 4. In our earliest youth the contagion of manners are 
observable. 5. The pyramids of Egypt has stood more than 
three thousand years. 6. A few pangs of conscience now and 
then interrupts his pleasure, and whispers to him that he once 
had better thoughts. 7. There is more cultivators of the 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

earth than of their own hearts. 8. Nothing but vain and 
foolish pursuits delight some persons. 9. Not one of those 
whom thou sees clothed in purple are happy. 10. Wisdom, 
virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity. 

24. 

1. The captain, with a half guilty secret to confess, and with 
the prospect of a painful and stormy interview before him, 
entered Mr. Osborne's offices with a most dismal countenance 
and abashed gait. 2. The girl is not pretty, but she is good 
natured, which is better than beauty. 3. He sells men, women, 
and children's shoes. 4. His honor, wealth, and religion were 
all embarked in the undertaking. 5. Not a house or barn was 
visible. 6. Your profession is to study and teach the laws of 
your city. 7. Transitive verbs have an active and passive 
participle. 8. We were at the market and saw everything 
there. 9. An idle man is unwilling to seek employment. 
10. I shall be happy always to see my friends. 

25. 

1. Honor and shame from no condition rise. 2. He came 
on the boat which his friends expected. 3. The affair was 
managed wisely and with caution. 4. To beg is harder than 
stealing. 5. The house will either be rented or sold. 6. What 
use is it to me ? 7. Neither he, nor nobody else, ever succeeded 
by such efforts. 8. Death never spared no one. 9. The naval 
battle was terrific, nothing never troubled me so much. 10. 
The mountains are extraordinarily high. 



•ooj#jo»- 



SPECIAL EXERCISES. 

Take any one of the foregoing sentences and expand it by 
adding to any or all of its modifying elements other modifying 
elements, single words, phrases, and clauses. 

Take any one of the sentences and, using the same words, 
write it in as many different forms as possible, without de- 
stroying its primary meaning. 

Take any one of the sentences and express the same thought 
without using any of the words given. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 193 

Change the character of any of the sentences by turning 
simple sentences to complex sentences, and complex sen- 
tences to compounds. 

Change compound sentences to complex, and complex sen- 
tences to simple. 

Change declarative sentences to the interrogative and to the 
negative form. 

Change the voices of transitive verbs and rearrange the 
sentences. 

Change the mood and tense of the verbs in a sentence, and 
rearrange the sentence. 

13 




Fourth Part. 



PROSODY. 

Prosody treats of Punctuation, Figures of Speech, Utter- 
ance, and Versification. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing written discourse into 
sections by means of points, for the purpose of showing the 
grammatical connection and dependence, and of making the 
sense more obvious. 

Capitals are used for a like purpose, and, therefore, they 
may with propriety be treated of at the same time with the 
Points. 

The principal grammatical points are five : 

1. The Comma, , 

2. The Semicolon, ; 

3. The Colon, : 

4. The Period, 

5. The Interrogation, ? 

Besides the five points named, several other characters are 
used for similar purposes. The most common of these are 
the following: 

The Exclamation, 2 

The Dash, — 

The Parenthesis, ( ) 

The Bracket, [ ] 

The Quotation, " " 

The Apostrophe, * 

194 



PROSODY. 195 

I. THE COMMA. 

The Comma marks the smallest of the grammatical divis- 
ions of discourse that require a point. 

RULE I. 

Parenthetical Expressions. — Phrases and single words, 
used parenthetically, should be separated from the rest of the 
sentence by commas. 

Phrases and words are parenthetical when they are not 
essential to the meaning and structure of the sentence in 
which they stand. 

Some of the phrases in common use, which require to be 
separated from the rest of the sentence by commas, are the 
following : 

in short, in truth, to be sure, 

in fact, as it were, to be brief, 

in fine, as it happens, after all, 

in reality, no doubt, you know, 

in brief, in a word, of course. 

Some of the single words used parenthetically, and often 
separated from the rest of the sentence by commas, are the 
following : 

therefore, namely, moreover, 

then, consequently, surely, 

however, indeed, accordingly, 

perhaps, too, finally. 

Examples for Practice. 

1. Gentleness is in truth the great avenue to real enjoyment. 

2. The locomotive bellows as it were from the fury of 
passion. 

3. He knows very well come what may that the note will be 
paid. 

4. He had no doubt great aptitude for learning languages. 

5. He went home accordingly and arranged his business in 
the manner described. 

6. There are in truth only two things to be considered 
namely his honesty and his ability. 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7. No nation in short is free from danger. 

8. When however the hour for the trial came the man was 
not to be found. 

9. I proceed fourthly to prove the fact from your own 
admissions. 

10. But on the other hand do not suppose that there is no 
use in trying. 

11. The meeting after all was something of a failure. 

12. Besides it may be of the greatest importance to you in 
your business. 

RULE II. 

Intermediate Expressions. — Clauses and expressions not 
parenthetical in character, yet so placed as to come between 
some of the essential parts of the sentence, should be sepa- 
rated from the rest of the sentence by commas. 

Care should be taken to distinguish these intermediate 
expressions from such as are properly restrictive in their char- 
acter. An expression is restrictive when it limits the meaning 
of some particular word to some particular sense. Thus, 
" The man who plants the field ought to reap the harvest." 
Here it is not "the man" merely, but "the man who plants 
the field," that is the subject of "ought." A separation of 
the relative and its adjuncts from "man," by means of commas, 
would destroy the sense. The clause, therefore, is restrictive. 
It limits the meaning to that particular man. But suppose I 
say, " Joseph, who happened to be in the field at the time, saw 
the carriage approach, and, in an ecstasy of delight, hastened 
to meet it." Here, the expression, " who happened to be in 
the field at the time," is properly a relative clause, not restric- 
tive, and comes under Rule IV. ; and the expression, " in an 
ecstasy of delight," is properly intermediate, and comes under 
Eule II. The former breaks the continuity between the sub- 
ject and the predicate ; the latter between the two predicates. 

Examples for Practice. 

1. Classical studies regarded merely as a means of culture 
are deserving of general attention. 

2. The sun with all its train of attendant planets is but a 
small and inconsiderable portion of the universe. 



PROSODY. 197 

3. We have endeavored in the preceding paragraph to show 
the incorrectness of his position. 

4. The speaker proceeded with the greatest animation to 
depict the horrors of the scene. 

5. Christianity is in a most important sense the religion of 
sorrow. 

6. A man of great wealth may for want of education and 
refinement of manner be a mere cipher in society. 

7. Charity on whatever side we contemplate it is one of the 
highest Christian graces. 

8. One hour a day steadily given to a particular study will 
bring in time large accumulations. 

RULE III. 

Dependent or Conditional Clauses. — A dependent or 
conditional clause should be separated from the rest of the 
sentence by a comma or by commas. 

NOTES. 

1. Clauses are dependent, when one of them is subject to 
the other for the completion of the sense. 

2. One of the dependent clauses usually begins with if, un- 
less, until, when, where, or other word expressive of condition, 
purpose, cause, time, place, and the like? as, "If you would 
succeed in business, be honest and industrious." 

Examples for Practice.* 

1. If you would succeed in business be punctual in observing 
your engagements. 

2. Every man if he would succeed in business must be 
punctual in observing his engagements. 

3. The days in December you know are at their shortest and 
therefore you must rise by the dawn if you would have much 
daylight. 

4. The index at the end of the book will enable the pupil if 

* In punctuating these examples and those which are to follow, insert 
not only the points required by the rule under consideration, but also 
those required by the preceding rules. 



198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

his memory fail him to discover the particular rule which he 
needs. 

5. The reader should however as he proceeds from sentence 
to sentence make a note of whatever strikes his attention. 

6. The good which you do may not be lost though it may be 
forgotten. 

7. We should in all probability be ashamed of much that we 
boast of could the world see our real motive. 

RULE IV. 
Relative Clauses not Restrictive. — Clauses introduced 
by a relative pronoun, if not restrictive, should be separated 
from the rest of the sentence by commas* 

NOTES. 

1. A comma should be put before the relative, even when 
used restrictively, if it is immediately followed by a word or a 
phrase inclosed in commas; as, " Those friends, who, in the 
native vigor of his powers, perceived the dawn of Robertson's 
future eminence, were at length amply rewarded." 

2. A comma should be put before the relative, even when 
used restrictively, if several words intervene between it and 
its grammatical antecedent; as, "He preaches most elo- 
quently, who leads the most pious life." 

3. Of which and of whom, even when used restrictively, are 
preceded by a comma; as, " No thought can be just, of which 
good sense is not the groundwork." 

Examples for Practice. 

1. A fierce spirit of rivalry which is at all times a dangerous 
passion had now taken full possession of him. 

2. The spirit which actuated him was a thirst for vengeance. 

3. The man of letters who has constantly before him ex- 
amples of excellence ought himself to be a pattern of ex- 
cellence. 

4. Patriotism consists in loving the country in which we 
are born. 



* See Note under Eule II., page 196, for an explanation of what is 
meant by restrictive clauses. 



PROSODY. 199 

5. Civil war is an awful evil of which however history fur- 
nishes many examples. 

6. No man can be thoroughly proficient in navigation who 
has never been at sea. 

7. The powers which now move the world are the printing- 
press and the telegraph. 

8. America may well boast of her Washington whose char- 
acter and fame are the common property of the world. 

RULE V. 

A Continued Sentence consisting of Co-ordinate 
Sentences. — In a continued sentence, consisting of co-ordi- 
nate sentences, the several co-ordinate sentences, if simple in 
construction, are separated from each other by commas. 

Examples for Practice. 

1. Crafty men contemn studies simple men admire them 
and wise men use them. 

2. Speak as you mean do as you profess perform what you 
promise. 

3. Caesar was dead the senators were dispersed all Rome was 
in confusion. 

RULE VI. 

Grammatical Expressions in the same Construction 
forming a Series. — Grammatical expressions in the same 
construction forming a series should be separated from each 
other, and from what follows, by commas. 

NOTES. 

1. A grammatical expression is a collection of words, having 
some grammatical dependence and connection, but not con- 
taining in themselves a predicate. 

2. Jf the expressions are brief, and there are but two of 
them, connected by and, or, or nor, no comma between them 
is needed; as, "Hard study and neglect of exercise impair 
the health." If, however, the two connected sentences differ 
much in form, it is better to set them off by commas ; as, 
"Hard study, and the entire absence of attention to the 
matter of diet, bring on disease." 



200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Examples for Practice. 

1. Love for study a desire to do right and carefulness in the 
choice of friends are important traits of character. 

2. To cleanse our opinions from falsehood our hearts from 
malignity and our actions from vice is our chief concern. 

3. Did God create for the poor a coarser earth a thinner air 
a paler sky ? 

4. Infinite space endless numbers and eternal duration fill 
the mind with great ideas. 

RULE VII. 

Words in the same Construction forming a Series. — 
Words in the same construction, forming a series, admit of 
the following three cases: 

1. There may be a conjunction between each two of the 
words ; as, " Industry and honesty and frugality and temper- 
ance are among the cardinal virtues." In this case, none of 
the words in the series are to be separated by commas. 

2. The conjunction may be omitted, except between the last 
two of the words ; as, " Industry, honesty, frugality, and tem- 
perance are among the cardinal virtues. " In this case, all the 
words in the series are to be separated from each other by 
commas. 

3. The conjunction may be omitted between the last two 
words, as well as between the others ; as, " Industry, honesty, 
frugality, temperance, are among the cardinal virtues." In 
this case, not only all the words of the series are to be sepa- 
rated from each other by commas, but a comma is to be 
inserted also after the last word, to separate it from what 
follows. 

4. A comma is not in any case to be inserted after the last 
word of a series, if what follows is only a single word ; as, 
"The good will form hereafter stronger, purer, holier ties." 

Examples for Practice. 

1. He was brave and pious and patriotic in all his aspira- 
tions. 

2. He was brave pious and patriotic in all his aspirations. 

3. He was brave pious patriotic in all his aspirations. 



PBOSODY. 201 

4. He was a brave pious patriotic man. 

5. Aright aleft above below he whirled the rapid sword. 

6. The address was beautifully elegantly and forcibly 
written. 

7. We are fearfully wonderfully made. 

8. Virtue religion is the one thing needful. 

9. Woe woe to the rider that tramples them down. 

10. The earth the air the water teem with life. 

11. Grand ideas and sentiments elevate and ennoble the 
mind. 

RULE VIII. 
Words or Phrases in Pairs. — Words or phrases in pairs 
take a comma after each pair. 

Examples for Practice. 

1. Anarchy and confusion poverty and distress desolation 
and ruin are the consequences of civil war. 

2. Truth and integrity kindness and modesty reverence and 
devotion were all remarked in him. 

3. The poor and the rich the weak and the strong the young 
and the old have one common Father. 

4. Eating or drinking laboring or sleeping let us do all in 
moderation. 

RULE IX. 

Nouns in Apposition. — A Noun in apposition to some 
preceding noun or pronoun, and having an adjunct condsthig 
of several words, should, with all its connected words, be sepa- 
rated from the rest of the sentence by commas. 

NOTES. 

1. Where the noun put in apposition stands alone, or has 
only an article before it, no comma is required between the 
said noun and the word with which it is in apposition ; as, 
" Paul the apostle was a man of energy." 

2. A noun following another as a synonym, or as giving ad- 
ditional illustration to the thought, is separated from the rest 
of the sentence by a comma before and after; as, "The word 
Poet, meaning a maker, a creator, is derived from the Greek." 

3. When a noun is predicated of the noun or pronoun with 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

which it is in apposition, no comma is required between them ; 
as, " They have just elected him Governor of the State." 

4. After several words containing a description of a person 
or thing, if the name of the person or thing is added, it should 
be set off from the rest of the sentence by commas ; as, " The 
greatest of poets among the ancients, Homer, like the great- 
est among the moderns, Milton, was blind." 

5. A title, whether abbreviated or expressed in full, when 
annexed to a noun or pronoun, must be set off by commas ; 
as, " At the request of the Rt. Rev. W. H. Odenheimer, D. D., 
the ceremony was postponed." 

Examples for Practice. 

1. We the people of the United States do hereby ordain and 
establish this Constitution. 

2. Virgil the chief poet among the Romans was fond of 
rural life. 

3. To call a man a fool is not to make him one. 

4. The chief work of Chaucer the Canterbury Tales sug- 
gested to Longfellow the plan of his work the Tales of a Way- 
side Inn. 

5. John Chapman Doctor of Medicine. John Chapman 

M.D. 

RULE X. 

The Case Independent. — A noun in the nominative case 
independent, together with its adjunct words, should be sepa- 
rated from the rest of the sentence by a comma, or by commas. 

Examples for Practice. 

1. Accept my dear young friends this expression of my 
regard. 

2. I beg sir to acknowledge the receipt of your favor. 

3. I rise Mr. President to a point of order. 

4. Show pity Lord ! O Lord forgive ! 

5. Remember sir you cannot have it. 

RULE XI. 
The Case Absolute. — A clause containing the construc- 
tion known as the case absolute should be separated from the 
rest of the sentence by a comma, or by commas. 



PROSODY. 203 

Examples for Practice. 

1. Then came Jesus the doors being shut and stood in the 
midst. 

2. A state of ease is generally speaking more attainable than 
a state of pleasure. 

3. Shame lost all virtue is lost. 

4. His father being dead the prince ascended the throne. 

5. I being in the way the Lord led me to the house of my 
master's brother. 

RULE XII. 
Inverted Clauses. — Inverted clauses, standing at the be- 
ginning of a sentence, are separated from the rest of the sen- 
tence by a comma. 

NOTES. 

1. The infinitive mood, especially when used to express 
object or design, is often inverted in this way ; as, " To obtain 
an education, he was willing to make sacrifices." 

2. In making alphabetical catalogues, compound names, 
such as John Quincy Adams, are usually inverted, that is, the 
last word in the name, being the principal one, is put first, and 
is then separated from the other parts of the name by a comma; 
as, Adams, John Quincy. 

Examples for Practice. 

1. Awkward in person he was ill adapted to gain respect. 

2. Of all our senses sight is the most important. 

3. To supply the deficiency he resorted to a shameful trick. 

4. Living in filth the poor cease to respect one another. 

5. To confess the truth I never greatly admired him. 

RULE XIII. 
Ellipsis of the Verb. — In continued sentences, having a 
common verb, which is expressed in one of the members, but 
omitted in the others, the ellipsis of the verb is marked by a 
comma. 

Examples for Practice. 

1. Reading maketh a full man ; conference a ready man ; 
writing an exact man. 

2. Homer was the greater genius ; Virgil the better artist. 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

3. Semiramis built Babylon ; Dido Carthage ; and Romulus 
Rome. 

RULE XIV. 

Short Quotations. — A short quotation, or a sentence 
resembling a quotation, should be preceded by a comma. 

Examples for Practice. 

1. Patrick Henry began his celebrated speech by saying " It 
is natural to man to indulge the illusions of hope." 

2. A good rule in education is Learn to be slow in forming 
your opinions. 

3. I say There is no such thing as human perfection. 

4. Some one justly remarks "It is a great loss to lose an 
affliction." 

»o*Koo 

II. THE SEMICOLON. 

The Semicolon marks a division of a sentence somewhat 
larger and more complex than that marked by a comma. 

RULE I. 

Subdivided Members in Compound Sentences.— When 
a sentence consists of two members, and these members, or 
either of them, are themselves subdivided by commas, the 
larger divisions of the sentence should be separated by a 
semicolon. 

NOTES. 

1. If the connection between these members is close, the 
semicolon is not used. The word "when," introducing the 
first member, indicates this kind of close connection, and pre- 
vents ordinarily the use of the semicolon. The Rule itself 
furnishes an example of the semicolon omitted in a sentence 
beginning with " when." 

2. When the members are considerably complex, they are 
sometimes separated by a semicolon, even though not sub- 
divided by commas ; as, " So sad and dark a story is scarcely 
to be found in any work of fiction ; and we are little disposed 
to envy the moralist who can read it without being softened." 



PROSODY. 205 

Examples for Practice. 

1. Sparre was sulky and perverse because he was a citizen 
of a republic. 

2. Sparre the Dutch general was sulky and perverse because 
according to Lord Mahon he was a citizen of a republic. 

3. Milton was like Dante a statesman and a lover and like 
Dante he had been unfortunate in ambition and in love. 

4. You may quit the field of business though not the field 
of danger and though you cannot be safe you may cease to be 
ridiculous. 

RULE II. 

Clauses and Expressions having a Common Depend- 
ence. — When several clauses or grammatical expressions of 
similar construction follow each other in a series, all having a 
common dependence upon some other clause, they are sepa- 
rated from each other by a semicolon, and from the clause on 
which they all depend, by a comma. 

Example. — " Philosophers assert, that nature is unlimited 
in her operations; that she has inexhaustible treasures in 
reserve ; that knowledge will always be progressive ; and that 
all future generations will continue to make discoveries." 

Examples for Practice. 

1. Mr. Croker is perpetually stopping us in our progress 
through the most delightful narrative in the language to 
observe that really Dr. Johnson was very rude that he talked 
more for victory than for truth that his taste for port wine 
with capilliare in it w T as very odd that Bosw T ell was imperti- 
nent and that it was foolish in Mrs. Thrale to marry the 
music-master. 

2. To give an early preference to honor above gain when 
they stand in competition to despise every advantage which 
cannot be attained without dishonest acts to brook no mean- 
ness and to stoop to no dissimulations are the indications of a 
great mind. 

RULE III. 

Sentences Connected in Meaning, but without Gram- 
matical Dependence. — Sentences following each other, with- 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

out grammatical dependence, but connected in meaning, are 
usually separated from each other by semicolons. 

Example. — " She presses her child to her heart ; she drowns 
it in her tears ; her fancy catches more than an angel's tongue 
can describe. " 

Examples for Practice. 

1. Stones grow vegetables grow and live animals grow live 
and feel. 

2. The summer is over and gone the winter is here with its 
frosts and snow the wind howls in the chimney at night the 
beast in the forest forsakes its lair the birds of the air seek the 
habitation of men. 

3. The temples are profaned the soldier's oath resounds in 
the house of God the marble pavement is trampled by iron 
hoofs horses neigh beside the altar. 

RULE IV. 

The Clause Additional. — When a sentence complete in 
itself is followed by a clause which is added by way of infer- 
ence, explanation, or enumeration, the additional clause, if 
formally introduced by some connecting word, is separated 
from the main body of the sentence by a semicolon ; but, if 
merely appended without any such connecting word, by a 
colon. 

Examples. — Apply yourself to study ; for it will redound to 
your honor. Apply yourself to study : it will redound to your 
honor. 

Some of the connecting words most commonly used for this 
purpose are namely, for, but, yet, to wit, etc. 

The word as, when used to connect an example with a rule, 
should be preceded by a semicolon and followed by a comma. 

Examples for Practice. 

1. Greece has given us three great historians namely 
Herodotus Xenophon and Thucydides. 

2. Some writers divide the history of the world into four 
ages viz. the golden age the silver age the bronze age and the 
iron age. 



PROSODY. 207 

3. Some writers divide the history of the world into four 
ages the golden age the silver age the bronze age and the iron 
age. 

4. Cicero in his treatise on morals enumerates four cardinal 
virtues to wit Fortitude Temperance Justice and Prudence. 

RULE V. 

A General Term in Apposition to trie Particulars 
under it. — A general term in apposition to several others 
which are particulars under it is separated from the particulars 
by a semicolon, and the particulars are separated from each 
other by commas. 

If the enumeration of the particulars is given with much 
formality, so as to make the several expressions complex, con- 
taining commas of their own, then these particulars must be 
separated from the general term by a colon, and from each 
other by semicolons; as, — 

Adjective Pronouns are divided into three classes; Distribu- 
tive, Demonstrative, and Indefinite. 

Adjective Pronouns are divided into these three classes: 
first, the Distributive, which are four in number ; secondly, 
the Demonstrative, which are four ; and thirdly, the Indefinite, 
which are nine. 



>>*<<>+- 



III. THE COLON. 
The Colon marks a division of a sentence more nearly 
complete than a semicolon. 

The two principles of the colon have already been given in 

Rules IV. and V., preceding. The following additional rules 

are given. 

RULE I. 

Greater Divisions of Complex Sentences. — When the 
minor divisions of a complex sentence contain a semicolon, 
the greater divisions should be separated by a colon ; thus, — 

As we perceive the shadow to have moved along the dial, 
but did not perceive it moving ; and it appears that the grass 
has grown, though nobody ever saw it grow : so the advances 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

we make in knowledge, as they consist of such insensible 
steps, are only perceivable by the distance. 

RULE II. 

Before a Quotation. — A colon is used before a direct 
quotation; thus, — 

Speaking of party, Pope makes this remark : " There never 
was any party, faction, sect, or cabal whatsoever, in which the 
most ignorant were not the most violent." 

If the quotation is of considerable length, consisting of 
several sentences, or begins a new paragraph, it should be 
preceded by both a colon and a dash. Example: — 

At the close of the meeting, the president rose and said : — 

" Ladies and Gentlemen, it is with extreme reluctance that 
I address you on this occasion," etc. 

If the quotation is merely some short saying, a comma is 
sufficient ; as, Dr. Thomas Brown says, " The benevolent spirit 
is as universal as the miseries which are capable of being 
relieved." 

RULE III. 

Yes and No. — The words yes and no, when in answer to a 
question, should be followed by a colon, provided the words 
which follow the yes and no are a continuation of the answer ; 
as, — 

" Can these words add vigor to your hearts ? Yes : they can 
do it; they have often done it." 

Yes and no are often followed by some noun in the nomi- 
native case independent; as, "Yes, sir," "Yes, my lords," 
In such cases, the colon should come after the nominative ; as, 
"Yes, sir: they can do it." " Yes, my lords : I am amazed 
at his lordship's speech." 

Examples for Practice on the Rules for the 
Comma, the Semicolon, and the Colon. 

[Tell what point is due at each place where this mark o 
occurs, and give the Rule for the same.] 
1. Satire always tends to dwarf o and it cannot fail to cari- 



PROSODY. 209 

cature o but poetry does nothing o if it does not tend to 
enlarge and exalt o and if it does not seek rather to beautify 
than deform. 

2. This is an iambic line o in which the first foot is formed 
of a word and a part of a word o the second and third o of 
parts taken from the body or interior of a word o the fourth 
o of a part and a whole o the fifth o of two complete words. 

3. Melissa o like the bee o gathers honey from every weed 
o while Arachne o like the spider o sucks poison from the 
fairest flowers. 

4. Are these to be conquered by all Europe united? No o 
sir o no united nation can be o that has the spirit to re- 
solve not to be conquered. 

5. Be our plain answer this o The throne we honor is the 
people's choice o the laws we reverence are our brave fathers' 
legacy o the faith we follow teaches us to live in bonds of 
charity with all mankind o and die with hope of bliss beyond 
the grave. 

6. The discourse consisted of two parts o in the first was 
shown the necessity of exercise o in the second o the advan- 
tages that would result from it. 



>XKcx^ 



IV. THE PERIOD. 
The Period marks the completion of the sentence. 

RULE I. 
Complete Sentences. — Sentences which are complete in 
sense, and not connected in construction with what follows, 
and not exclamatory or interrogative in their character, should 
be followed by a period. 

RULE II. 
After Abbreviations. — A period is used after all abbre- 
viated words. 

NOTES. 

1. The most common method of abbreviation is to use the 
first letter of a word for the whole word, as B. Franklin for 

14 



210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Benjamin Franklin. Sometimes, in abbreviating the word, 
the first letter is doubled ; as, p. for page, pp. for pages, M. for 
Monsieur, MM. for Messieurs. In such cases a period is not 
inserted between the two letters which represent the plural of 
one word. This explains why there is no period between the 
two L's in the title LL.D. (Legum Doctor), the LL. standing 
for one word in the plural, and the D. for the other word in 
the singular. Sometimes a word is abbreviated by taking the 
first two or three letters, as Eng. for England; sometimes by 
taking the first letter and the last, as Wm. for William, Ca. for 
California ; sometimes by taking the first letter and some lead- 
ing letter in the middle of the word, as Mo. for Missouri, MS. 
for manuscript. In these cases, the period is to be used only 
at the end of the combined letters. In the case last cited, the 
last letter of the combination is doubled when the word is 
plural; as, MS. manuscript, MSS. manuscripts. 

2. When an abbreviated word comes at the end of a sen- 
tence, it is not necessary to use two periods. One point is 
sufficient to mark both the abbreviation and the end of the 
sentence. But if the construction requires some other point, 
as the comma, semicolon, colon, interrogation, etc., both points 
must be inserted, one to mark the grammatical construction, 
the other to mark the abbreviation; as, "He reported the 
death of John Chapman, M. D." " John Chapman, M. D., at 
the early age of twenty-four, was carried off by disease." 

3. When two or more abbreviated titles follow each other, 
they must be separated by commas, just as they would be, if 
written out in full. Thus : " Thomas Sumner, Doctor of 
Divinity, Doctor of Laws, Bishop of London/' abbreviated, 
becomes, "Thomas Sumner, D. D., LL.D., Bp. of London." 

4. Proper names are sometimes permanently shortened, the 
short form being meant, not as an ordinary abbreviation, but 
as the real and true name. This was the case with the cele- 
brated dramatist, Ben Jonson. We have analogous and more 
familiar instances in Ned Buntline, Bill Smith, Tom Jones, 
etc. In such cases, no period should be inserted to mark the 
abbreviation. 

5. In like manner, various other abbreviations which are in 
very familiar use acquire the character of integral words, not 
requiring the period after them to denote abbreviations. They 



PROSODY. 211 

become nouns, with a singular and a plural. Thus, in Eng- 
land, Cantab (an abridgement of Cantabrigiensis, and meaning 
an alumnus of Cambridge University), has become a noun, the 
body of the alumni being called Can tabs, and any one of them 
a Cantab. In like manner, we have Jap and Japs for Japanese, 
consol and consols for consolidated loan or consolidated loans 
of the British Government, three per cents, five per cents, etc. 

6. The word cent, in the combination per cent, had become 
thoroughly established as an integral word, and was almost 
universally written and printed without the mark of abbrevia- 
tion ; but of late years, some writers, in a spirit of hypercriti- 
cism, have insisted on restoring the period after cent to show 
that it is an abbreviation of centum. They ought in consist- 
ency to put a period after quart, to show that it is an abbre- 
viation of quarta, or after cab, because it is abbreviated from 
cabriolet. 

7. The letters of the alphabet, a, b, c, A, B, C, etc., when 
used in geometry and other sciences to represent quantities, 
are not abbreviations, and should not be so marked by the 
insertion of a period. 

8. When the letters of the alphabet are used to represent 
numerals, it is customary to insert a period at the end of each 
completed numeral; as, Psalms iv., xxi., lxxxvi., cxix., etc. 
When dates are thus expressed, the whole number is separated 
into periods of thousands, hundreds, and the portion less than 
a hundred; as, M.DCCC.XCIX. for the year one thousand, 
nine hundred and ninety-nine, or 1899, 

9. The Arabic figures, 1, 2, 3, etc., and the various marks 
used by printers, as § for section, f for paragraph, etc., are not 
abbreviations, but stand for whole words, and therefore do not 
require the period. The period is used, however, before deci- 
mals, and between pounds and shillings ; as, £2. 10s. 4d. ster- 
ling was worth $13,719 at the rate of exchange then prevailing. 

10. The words 4to, 8vo, 12m o, etc., are not strictly abbrevia- 
tions, the figures representing a part of the word. If the letters 
were written in place of the figures which represent them, it 
would be seen at once that the words are complete, quar-to, 
octa-vo, duodeci-mo, etc. Periods therefore are not required 
for such words. The same rule will apply to 1st, 2dly, 3dly, etc. 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Examples for Practice. 

[Tell what Point is needed at each place where this mark o 
occurs, and give the Rule for the same.] 

1. The laws of Phoroneus were established 1807 o B o C 

o those of Lycurgus o 884 o Bo C o o of Draco o 
623 o B o C o o of Solon o 587 o B o C o o See chap o 
vii o § xiv o If 7 o p o 617 o 

2. The reader is requested to refer to the following passages 
of Scripture o Ex o xx o 18 o Deut o xx o 19 o 2 o 
Sam o xix o 2 o 

3. Bought o on 9 mos credit o the following articles o 4 
yds o 3 qrs o 2 n o of broadcloth at $12 a yd o o 6 gals o 

1 pt o 2 gi o of vinegar at 65 cts o a gal o o and 3J cords of 
wood at $7.50 a cord. 

4. Excellence in conversation depends o in a great meas- 
ure o on the attainments which one has made o if o there- 
fore o education is neglected o conversation will become 
trifling o if perverted o corrupting, 

5. Dryden's page is a natural field o rising into inequali- 
ties o and diversified by the varied exuberance of abundant 
vegetation o Pope's is a velvet lawn o shaven by the scythe o 
and levelled by the roller. 



-00>©<0-»- 



V. THE INTERROGATION POINT. 
An Interrogation Point is used for marking questions. 

In regard to the portion of discourse marked off by it, the 
Interrogation Point is equivalent most commonly to a period ; 
but it may be equivalent to a colon, a semicolon, or a comma. 

It is a question of some importance to know, in each case, 
to which of these four points the interrogation point is equiva- 
lent, because upon this depends the propriety of using, or not 
using, a capital after it. When there is, in that particular 
construction, but one interrogation point, it is always equiva- 
lent to a period, and should be followed by a capital. When, 
however, there is a succession of questions, following each 
other in a series, without any affirmative sentences inter- 



PROSODY. 213 

vening, the interrogation point sometimes represents sections 
of discourse less than a period. The way to determine to 
which class the particular question belongs is to change the 
construction into an affirmative form. It will, in one case, be 
resolved into a series of independent sentences, separated by 
periods ; in the other, into a connected or continued sentence, 
with co-ordinate members separated by commas, semicolons, 
or colons. Example : 

" Who will bring me into the strong city? who will lead me 
into Edom ? Wilt not thou, O God, who hast cast us off? and 
wilt not thou, O God, go forth with our hosts?" (Ps. 108 : 10, 
11.) Change to the affirmative form. " Some one will bring 
me into the strong city; some one will lead me into Edom. 
Thou, O God, who hast cast us off, wilt do it ; thou, O God, 
wilt go forth with our hosts." 

" Shall a man obtain the favor of Heaven by impiety ? by 
murder? by falsehood? by theft?" Affirmatively: "A man 
cannot obtain the favor of Heaven by impiety, by murder, by 
falsehood, by theft." 

RULE. 

Direct Questions. — The interrogation point should be 
placed at the end of every direct question. 

NOTES. 

1. A direct question is one in regular form, requiring, or at 
least admitting an answer; as, "Why do you neglect your 
duty?" An indirect question is one that is merely reported 
or spoken of; as, " He inquired why you neglected your 
duty." 

2. When there is a succession of questions, having a com- 
mon grammatical dependence on some preceding word or 
clause, each question forming by itself an incomplete sentence, 
some writers place an interrogation point at the end of the 
series, and separate the several members by a dash, or per- 
haps by a comma. This method of punctuation is not correct. 
Each question, no matter how short or broken, should have its 
own point. See the example immediately preceding the Kule. 

3. Sometimes a question is intended, although the words are 
not put in the usual interrogative form. Thus: "You will 



214 m ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

come this afternoon?" In such cases the interrogation point 
should be used, as in this example, although the sentence may- 
be declarative in its form. 



VI. THE EXCLAMATION POINT. 

The Exclamation Point is used for marking strong emo- 
tion. 

In regard to the portion of discourse set off by it, the 
exclamation point, like the interrogation point, is equivalent 
commonly to a period ; but it may be^equivalent to a colon, a 
semicolon, or a comma. The same considerations govern here 
that govern in the case of the Interrogation. 

RULE I. 

After Strong Emotion. — The exclamation point must be 
used at the close of every sentence, clause, or grammatical 
expression, intended to convey strong emotion. 

Inexperienced and weak writers are apt to deal largely in 
the use of the exclamation point, as if to make up for the 
feebleness of the thought by mere tricks of punctuation. 
Young writers therefore should be on their guard in this 
matter, and not use the exclamation point unless there is 
some real and strong emotion to be expressed. 

RULE II. 

After an Interjection. — The exclamation point must be 
used after an interjection; as, Ah me! 

NOTES. 

1. Where the interjection does not stand by itself, but forms 
part of a sentence, clause, or expression, the exclamation point 
should be placed at the end of the whole expression, and not 
immediately after the interjection ; as, " O wretched state ! 
O bosom black as death ! " 

2. Sometimes oh is grammatically separable from the words 
following it, though the emotion runs through the whole. In 



PROSODY. 215 

that case, there should be a comma after the oh, and the ex- 
clamation point at the end of the whole expression; as, "Oh, 
where shall rest be found ! " 

3. When an interjection is repeated several times, the words 
are separated from each other by a comma, the exclamation 
being put only after the last ; as, " Fie, fie, fie ! pah, pah, pah ! 
give me an ounce of civet, good apothecary, to sweeten my 
imagination." 

4. Two of the interjections, eh and hey, are sometimes 
uttered in a peculiar tone, so as to ask a question. In that 
case they should be followed by the interrogation point ; as, 
"You thought you would not be found out, eh?" 

RULE III. 

More than One Exclamation Point. — Where the emo- 
tion to be expressed is very strong, more than one exclama- 
tion point is sometimes used ; as, " That man virtuous ! ! You 
might as well preach to me of the virtue of Judas Iscariot ! ! " 

This mode of repeating the exclamation point is much used 
in burlesque and satire. 

Examples for Practice. 

[Tell what Point is needed in each place where this mark o 
occurs, and give the Rule for the same.] 

1. Why o for so many a year o has the poet wandered amid 
the fragments of Athens and Rome o and paused o with 
strange and kindling feelings o amid their broken columns o 
their mouldering temples o their deserted plains o 

2. Greece o indeed o fell o but how did she fall o Did she 
fall like Babylon o Did she fall like Lucifer o never to rise 
again o 

3. Have you eyes o Could you on this fair mountain leave 
to feed o and batten on this moor o Ha o have you eyes o 
You cannot call it love o for o at your age o the hey-dey in 
the blood is tame, it's humble, and waits upon the judgment o 
and what judgment would step from this to this o 

4. Charge o Chester o charge o on o Stanley o on o 

5. King Charles o forsooth o had so many private virtues o 
And had James no private virtues o Was even Oliver Crom- 



216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

well o his bitterest enemies themselves being judges o desti- 
tute of private virtues o And what o after all o are the vir- 
tues ascribed to Charles o 



■oo^<x»- 



VII. THE DASH. 

The Dash is used chiefly, either to mark a sudden change 
or interruption in the structure of the sentence, or to mark 
some rhetorical or elocutionary pause. 

RULE I. 
Construction Changed.— A dash is used where the con- 
struction of the sentence is abruptly broken off or changed. 

Example. — Was there ever a bolder captain of a more 
valiant band? Was there ever — but I scorn to boast. 

RULE II. 

Unexpected Change in Sentiment.— The dash is some- 
times used to mark a sudden and unexpected change in the 
sentiment. 

Example. — He had no malice in his mind — 
No ruffles on his shirt. 

RULE III. 

Emphatic Generalization. — A dash is sometimes used to 
mark the transition from a succession of particulars to some 
emphatic general expression which includes them all. 

Example. — He was witty, learned, industrious, plausible, — 
everything but honest. 

RULE IV. 

A Series Dependent upon a Concluding Clause. — 
When there is a long series of clauses or expressions, all 
dependent upon some concluding clause, it is usual, in pass- 
ing from the preceding part of the passage to that upon which 
the whole depends, to mark the transition by inserting a dash, 
in addition to the comma. 

Example. — The great men of Eome, her beautiful legends, 



PROSODY. 217 

her history, the height to which she rose, and the depth to 
which she fell, — these make up one-half of the student's ideal 
world. 

The most common example of this use of the dash is where 
the grammatical subject or nominative is loaded with numer- 
ous adjuncts, so that there is danger of its being lost sight of 
when the verb is introduced. The insertion of the dash here 
seems to give the mind an opportunity of going back to the 
main subject; as, "Every step in the attainment of physical 
power; every new trait of intelligence, as they one by one 
arise in the infantile intellect, like the glory of night, starting 
star by star into the sky — is hailed with a heart-burst of 
rapture and surprise." 

RULE V. 
Rhetorical Repetition. — When a word or an expression is 
repeated for rhetorical purposes, the construction being begun 
anew, a dash should be inserted before each such repetition. 

Example. — Shall I, who was born, I might almost say, but 
certainly brought up, in the tent of my father, that most ex- 
cellent general — shall I, the conqueror of Spain and Gaul, and 
not only of the Alpine nations, but of the Alps themselves— 
shall I compare myself with this half-year captain? 

Note. — This kind of repetition is sometimes called by elo- 
cutionists the echo. 

RULE VI. 

Rhetorical or Elocutionary Pause. — A dash is some- 
times used to mark a significant pause, where there is no 
break in the grammatical construction. 

Example. — You have given the command to a person of 
illustrious birth, of ancient family, of innumerable statues, 
but — of no experience. 

RULE VII. 
Reflex Apposition. — Words at the end of a sentence, and 
standing somewhat detached, and referring back by apposition 
to preceding parts of the sentence, should be separated from 
the previous portions by a dash. 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Examples. — The four greatest names in English poetry are 
among the first we come to, — Chaucer, Spenser, Shakespeare, 
and Milton. 

Kings and their subjects, masters and their slaves, find a 
common level in two places, — at the cross, and in the grave. 

Note. — The dash here is said by some to indicate the omis- 
sion of namely, or that is. It is true that one of these expres- 
sions might be inserted in most cases that come under this 
rule, but the passage would thereby lose in rhetorical force. 
The dash, in this case, as in Rule VI., is in fact, purely elocu- 
tionary. 

RULE VIII. 

The Dash Parenthetical. — Parenthetical expressions are 
sometimes included between two dashes, instead of the usual 
signs of parenthesis. 

Examples. — The smile of a child — always so ready when 
there is no distress, and so soon recurring when that distress 
has passed away — is like an opening of the sky, showing 
heaven beyond. 

The archetypes, the ideal forms of things without — if not, 
as some philosophers have said, in a metaphysical sense, yet 
in a moral sense,— exist within us. 

NOTES. 

1. If, when the parenthetical part is removed from a sen- 
tence like one of these, the portions remaining require no 
point between them, no points besides the dashes will be 
required at the beginning and end of the parenthetical ex- 
pression. Thus, in the first of the foregoing examples, if the 
parenthetical part be left out, the remaining portion will read, 
"The smile of a child is like an opening/' etc. But if the 
parenthetical part be left out of the second example, it 
will read, "The archetypes, the ideal forms of things with- 
out, exist within us," with a comma at the place where 
each of the dashes comes in. In such cases, there must be 
two commas in the parenthetical form of the sentence, 
namely, one before each of the dashes, as in the example. 

2. If the parenthetical words express an interrogation or an 
exclamation, they must be followed by an interrogation point 



PROSODY. 219 

or an exclamation point, before the concluding dash ; as, Re- 
ligion — who can doubt it ? — is the noblest theme for the exer- 
cise of the intellect. 

3. The question, whether the marks which separate paren- 
thetical words from the rest of the sentence shall be dashes, 
commas, or marks of parenthesis, is left a good deal to the 
fancy of the writer. The subject will be more particularly 
explained in the section on the Parenthesis. 

RULE IX. 

Question and Answer. — If question and answer, instead 
of beginning separate lines, are run into a paragraph, they 
should be separated by a dash. 

Example. — Who made you?— God. What else did God 
make ? — God made all things. Why did God make you and 
all things? — God made all things for his own glory. 

RULE X. 

Omissions. — The dash is used to mark the omissions of 
letters or figures; as, — 

General W n captured the Hessians at Trenton. 

Matt. 9 : 1—6. [N. B. This is equivalent to Matt. 9 : 1, 2, 3, 
4, 5, 6.] 

RULE XL 

Examples on a New Line. — A dash should follow as and 
thus when the example following them begins a new line. 
For example, see the preceding rule. 

Examples for Practice. 

[Tell what point is needed at each place where this mark o 
occurs, and give the rule for the same.] 

1. Almost all kinds of raw material extracted from the 
interior of the earth o metals o coals o precious stones o 
and the like o are obtained from mines differing in fertility. 

2. Each of these great and ever memorable struggles o 
Saxon against Norman o villein against lord o Roundhead 
against Cavalier o Dissenter against Churchman o Manches- 
ter against Old Sarum o was o in its own order and season o 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

a struggle on the result of which were staked the dearest 
interests of the human race. 

3. Here lies the great o False marble o where o Nothing 
but sordid dust lies here o 

4. Greece o Carthage o Rome o where are they o 

5. " I plunged right into the debate o and " o " Did not say 
a word to the point o of course " o 

6. " How are you o Trepid o How do you feel to-day o Mr. 
Trepid?" " A great deal worse than I was o thank you o 
almost dead o I am obliged to you" o "Why o Trepid o 
what is the matter, with you " o " Nothing o I tell you o 
nothing in particular o but a great deal is the matter with me 
in general " o 

ooX^O-o 

VIII. THE PARENTHESIS. 

The Marks of Parenthesis are used to inclose words 
which have little or no connection with the rest of the sen- 
tence. 

NOTES. 

1. We must distinguish between parenthesis and marks of 
parenthesis. The parenthesis is the sentence, or part of a 
sentence, that is inserted into another sentence. The marks 
of parenthesis are the two curved lines which inclose the 
words thus let in. The term, marks of parenthesis , to indicate 
these curved lines, is preferred to the term parentheses. Paren- 
theses means properly parenthetical sentences, not marks of 
parenthesis. 

2. Sometimes commas, and sometimes dashes, are used 
instead of the curved lines, to inclose words that are of a 
parenthetical character, and it is not always easy to determine 
when to use one of these modes, and when to use another. 
It may be observed, in general, that the curved lines mark the 
greatest degree of separation from the rest of the sentence ; 
the dashes, the next greatest; and the commas, the least 
separation of all. 

Rule for Parenthesis. 
Words inserted in the body of a sentence, and nearly or 



PROSODY. 221 

quite independent of the sentence in meaning and construc- 
tion, should be inclosed with the marks of parenthesis. 

NOTES. 

1. A very common example of the use of marks of parenthe- 
sis is in the reports of speeches, where a person is referred to, 
but not named. In the actual delivery of the speech, the per- 
son meant is sufficiently indicated by the speaker's pointing to 
him, or looking at him, or by other significant gesture. But 
as this cannot be transferred to the written or printed page, 
the reporter usually supplies its place by inserting the name 
of the person meant, and the name thus inserted by the 
reporter is inclosed by marks of parentheses. Thus : " After 
the very lucid exposition of the matter by the gentleman 
opposite to me (Mr. Stuart), it will not be necessary for me 
to say much in defence of this part of the subject." 

2. In reporting speeches, marks of parenthesis are used to 
inclose exclamations of approbation or disapprobation on the 
part of the audience; as, " My lords, I am amazed at his lord- 
ship's declaration (hear, hear). Yes, my lords : I am amazed, 
that one in his position could so far forget the proprieties of 
debate." 

3. Marks of parenthesis are used to inclose a query, or com- 
ment of any kind, made by the one who is reporting, copying, 
or quoting the words of another; as, "The Komans were the 
first (indeed ?) who learned the art of navigation." 

4. In strict accuracy, the marks in these three cases (Notes 
1, 2, 3) should be brackets, because the matter thus inserted 
is really an interpolation by the reporter. But custom has 
sanctioned the use of marks of parenthesis in these cases. 
[See Section IX., Brackets, Note 2.] 

5. In scientific works, marks of parenthesis are used to 
inclose figures or letters that are employed in enumerating a 
list of particulars ; as, " The unlawfulness of suicide appears 
from the following considerations : (1) Suicide is unlawful on 
account of its general consequences. (2) Because it is a direct 
violation of the law." 

6. If no point would be required between the parts of a sen- 
tence, in case there were no parenthesis there, then no points 
should be used at that place, in addition to the marks of 



222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

parenthesis ; as, " The Egyptian style of architecture (see Dr. 
Pocock's work) was apparently the mother of the Greek." 

7. If a point would be required between the parts of a sen- 
tence, in case no parenthesis were there, then, when the 
parenthesis is inserted, said point should be inserted also, 
and should be placed after the second mark of parenthesis; 
as, " Pride, in some disguise or other, is the most ordinary 
spring of action." " Pride, in some disguise or other (often a 
secret to the proud man himself), is the most ordinary spring 
of action." 

8. If the parenthetical part of a sentence requires at the 
end a point of its own, this point should come inside of the 
last mark of parenthesis, and the point belonging to the main 
sentence should come before the first mark of parenthesis ; as, 
" While the Christian desires the approbation of his fellow- 
men, (and why should he not desire it ?) he disdains to receive 
their goodwill by dishonorable means." 



>tt<*>- 



IX. BRACKETS. 

Brackets are used to inclose in a sentence a word, or words, 
which do not form part of the original composition. 

NOTES. 

1. Brackets are somewhat like the marks of parenthesis in 
form, one, however, being angular, the other curved, and are 
also in some respects like the latter in signification and use. 

2. Brackets are used to inclose a sentence, or a part of a sen- 
tence, within the body of another sentence, and thus far are 
like the marks of parenthesis. But the matter included 
within brackets is entirely independent of the sentence, and 
so differs from what is merely parenthetical. Further, the 
matter within the brackets is usually inserted by one writer 
to correct or add to what has been written by another, while 
the parenthesis is a part of the original composition, and is 
written by the same person that wrote the rest of the sentence. 

3. The comma before and after, the dash before and after, 
the marks of parenthesis, and the brackets, all have something 
in common. They all are used to include matter which is 



PROSODY. 223 

inserted in the body of a sentence, and which is more or less 
independent of the sentence, and extraneous to it. They 
indicate increasing degrees of independence and extraneous- 
ness, about in the order in which they have just been named, 
the comma before and after showing least, and the brackets 
showing most, of this independence. 

Rule for the Use of Brackets. 
In correcting or modifying the expression of another, by 
inserting words of our own, the words thus inserted should be 
inclosed in brackets. 

Examples. — A soft answer turn [turns] away wrath. 
The number of our days are [is] w T ith thee. 
The letter [which] you wrote me on Saturday came duly to 
hand. 
The captain had several men [who] died on the voyage. 

NOTES. 

1. Brackets are used in critical editions of ancient authors 
to indicate that in the opinion of the editor the words so 
inclosed are an interpolation, and do not belong to the origi- 
nal. The words thus bracketed are not interpolated by the 
editor, but the editor takes this means of indicating that they 
have been interpolated by somebody else. He fears to leave 
the words out altogether, because they have stood so long in 
the text, but he takes this means of showing that he considers 
them spurious. 

2. Brackets are used in dictionaries to separate the punctua- 
tion, or the etymology of a w T ord, or some incidental remark 
about it, from the other parts of the explanation. Thus : 
Resemblant [Fr. resembler, to resemble.] Having resemblance. 
[Rare.] 

3. In regard to the use of points before and after the 
brackets, and the punctuation of any sentence or clause 
within the brackets, the same rules w T ill apply that have 
been given in regard to the marks of parenthesis. 

Examples on all the Preceding Rules. 

1. The last words of Raleigh were o " Why dost thou not 
strike o Strike o man o " o To the executioner o who was 



224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

pausing o The last of the Duke of Buckingham o " Traitor o 
thou hast killed me o " o To the assassin Felton o The last 
of Charles II. o " Don't let poor Nelly starve o " o Referring 
to Nell Gwynne o The last of William III. o " Can this last 
long o " o To his physician o The last of Locke o " Cease 
now © " o To Lady Markham o who had been reading the 
Psalms to him o 

2. If we exercise right principles o and we cannot have 
them unless we exercise them o they must be perpetually on 
the increase o 

3. Are you still o I fear you are o far from being comfort- 
ably settled o 

4. Know then this truth o enough for man to know o 
Virtue alone is happiness below o 

5. The Egyptian style of architecture o see Dr. Pocock o 
not his discourses o but his prints o was apparently the 
mother of the Greek o 



>>*< 



X. QUOTATION MARKS. 

A Quotation is the introduction into one's discourse of a 
word or of words uttered by some one else. 

The marks of quotation are two inverted commas (") at the 
beginning, and two apostrophes (") at the end, of the portion 
quoted. 

RULE I. 

"Words from Another Author. — A word or words intro- 
duced from some other author should be inclosed by quota- 
tion marks. 

NOTES. 

1. It is proper for a writer to use quotation marks in intro- 
ducing words from some other writings of his own, if the words 
thus introduced are intended as a citation. 

2. A writer, in quoting from himself, may use his option 
in regard to the use of quotation marks. It depends upon 
whether he does, or does not, wish to make a reference to his 
previous writings. We have no such option, however, when 



PROSODY. 225 

using the words of other people. To use the words of others 
without acknowledging them to be such, is plagiarism, which 
is only another name for stealing. It is, however, a breach of 
the Decalogue, rather than of Grammar. 

3. Sometimes, in quoting from another, we wish for conven- 
ience to give the substance only of his meaning, but not 
his exact words. In such a case, we may show that the word- 
ing has been thus altered, by using only one inverted comma 
and one apostrophe, instead of two. Thus : The last six com- 
mandments are, 'Honor thy father and thy mother, Thou 
shalt not kill, Thou shalt not commit adultery, Thou shalt not 
steal, Thou shalt not bear false witness, Thou shalt not covet.' 
Unless we indicate in this way, or by express remark, that the 
phraseology has been altered, we should in quoting be careful 
to give the exact words of the author, especially where the 
quotation is from Holy Scripture. Any alteration whatever 
in the words inclosed in quotation marks is regarded as dis- 
honest, unless in some manner we distinctly indicate that 
such alteration has been made. 

4. Quotation marks are not proper when we state the 
opinion of others in language of our own ; as, Socrates said 
that he believed the soul to be immortal. If this expression 
be changed, so as to give the exact words of Socrates, then the 
quotation marks will be needed; as, Socrates said, " I believe 
the soul to be im mortal.' ' 

5. Short phrases from foreign languages are usually printed 
in italics, instead of being enclosed in quotation marks ; as, 
He believed in the principle of nil admirari. Titles and names 
of various kinds are sometimes marked in this way ; as, The 
Tempest is regarded by some as one of Shakspeare's earliest 
plays. This practice, however, is not so much in vogue as it 
was, the tendency at present being to use, in all such cases, 
the quotation marks instead of italics. 

RULE II. 

A Quotation within a Quotation. — When a quotation 
incloses within it another quotation, the external quotation 
has the double marks, and the one included has only the 
single marks. 

15 



226 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Examples.— It has been well said, " The command, ' Thou 
shalt not kill/ forbids many crimes besides that of murder." 

Some one has said, " What an argument for prayer is con- 
tained in the words, ' Our Father which art in heaven ! ' " 

RULE III. 

Consecutive Paragraphs Quoted. — When several con- 
secutive paragraphs are quoted, the inverted commas should 
be placed at the beginning of each paragraph, but the apos- 
trophes only at the end of the whole quotation. 

NOTES. 

1. If the several paragraphs thus quoted do not come 
together in the original, but are taken from different parts 
of the book or essay, each paragraph should begin and end 
with quotation marks. 

2. If the extract forms but one paragraph, but is made up 
of several detached portions taken from different parts of the 
book or essay quoted, the fact that the extracts are not con- 
tinuous may be shown, either by inserting points (....) at 
each place where there is a break, or by enclosing each de- 
tached portion with quotation marks. 

3. In some publications, the inverted commas are inserted 
at the beginning of each line of a quotation. The London 
Times always punctuates in this way. So do some American 
newspapers. The practice is more common in England than 
in America, but as it encumbers and disfigures the page with- 
out any real advantage, the tendency in both countries is 
towards the simpler method described in Rule III. 

Examples for Practice. 

1. This definition oDro Latham o from whom w T e bor- 
rowed it o illustrates o in his work on the o English Lan- 
guage o p o 359 o by the expression o a sharp-edged instru- 
ment o , which means an instrument with sharp edges. 

2. The words o all-wise o , o incense-breaking o , o book- 
seller o , and o noble-man o are compounds. 

3. o There is but one object o o says Augustine o o greater 
than the soul o and that one is its Creator o o 



PROSODY. 227 

4. o Let me make the ballads of a nation o o said Fletcher 
of Saltoun o o and I care not who makes the laws o o 

5. When Fenelon's library was on fire o o God be praised 
o o said he o o that it is not the dwelling of a poor man o o 



■^J«<00- 



CAPITALS. 

Rule 1. First Word in a Sentence.— The first word in a 
sentence should begin with a capital. 

Rule 2. First "Word of an Example. — The first word of 
a sentence or clause which is given as an example should 
begin with a capital; as, "Temperance promotes health." 

Rule 3. First "Word of a Direct Question. — The first 
word of a direct question should begin with a capital. Ex- 
amples : — 

(Direct.) His words are, "Why do you not study the 

lesson ? " 
(Indirect.) He desires to know why you do not study the 

lesson. 

Rule 4. First Word of a Direct Quotation.— The first 
word of a direct quotation should begin with a capital. Ex- 
amples : — 

(Direct.) Plutarch says, " Lying is the vice of slaves." 
(Indirect.) Plutarch says that lying is the vice of slaves. 

Rule 5. First Word after a Period.— The first word after 
a period, except when used as an abbreviation, should begin 
with a capital. 

Rule 6. After an Interrogation.— A capital should follow 
the mark of interrogation, when equivalent to a period, as it 
usually is. 

Rule 7. Numbered Clauses.— Clauses, when separately 
numbered, should begin with a capital, though not separated 
from each other by a period ; as, — 

This writer asserts, 1. That Nature is unlimited in her 
operations ; 2. That she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve ; 



228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. That knowledge will always be progressive, and, 4. That all 
future generations will continue to make discoveries. 

Rule 8. Quoting Titles. — In quoting the title of a book, 
every noun, pronoun, adjective, and adverb should begin with 
a capital; as, " Sparks's Life of Washington." 

Rule 9. The pronoun I, and the Interjection O, should 
always be capital letters. 

Rule 10. Poetry. — The first word of every line of poetry 
should begin with a capital. 

Rule 11. Names of God. — All names and titles of God 
should begin with a capital; as, Jehovah, Father, Creator, 
Almighty. 

Note 1. When any name usually applied to the Supreme 
Being is used for a created being, it does not begin with a 
capital ; as, " The Lord is a great God above all gods." " Lord 
of lords." 

Note 2. Providence is sometimes used to mean God, that is, 
the One who provides for us ; Heaven likewise is used to mean 
the One who reigns in heaven. In such cases the word should 
begin with a capital. But if only God's providential care, or 
his place of abode is meant, a capital is not needed. 

Note 3. Such adjectives as eternal, universal, heavenly, divine, 
when applied to God, need not begin with a capital, unless 
something in the particular instance makes them emphatic. 
Custom, however, has made capitals necessary in the follow- 
ing instances : Almighty God, Infinite One, Supreme Being, 
First Cause. 

Note 4. When an attribute of God is expressed, not by an 
adjective, as in the instances above, but by a noun dependent 
upon another noun, as, " Father of mercies," the dependent 
noun in such combinations does not require a capital. 

Note 5. "Son of God/' as applied to our Saviour, requires 
that both nouns should begin with a capital ; " Son of man " 
requires no capital for the latter noun. 

Note 6. Great diversity prevails in regard to the pronouns, 
when referring to God. Some authors, in printing a hymn or 
a prayer, make the page fairly bristle with capitals, every pro- 
noun that refers in any manner to God being decorated in that 
manner. The first stage of this fancy is that which prints in 



PROSODY. 229 

this manner, Thou, Thine, Thee. In the second stage, He, 
His, him are thus treated. The last and highest stage shows 
itself in the relative pronouns, Who, Whose, and Whom. In 
the standard editions of the English Bible, the pronouns, when 
referring to God, are never printed in this way, not even in 
forms of direct address to the Deity ; as, " But thou, O Lord, 
be merciful unto me." 

Rule 12. Proper Names. — All proper names should begin 
with capitals ; as, Jupiter, Mahomet, Brahma, Pompey, Lake 
Erie, Monday, Good Friday, B-ome, China, France. 

Note 1. The word devil, when used to designate Satan, 
should begin with a capital; in all other cases with a small 
letter; as, "The Devil and his angels. " "The devils also 
believe and tremble." 

Note 2. The same persons who capitalize the first letter of 
the pronouns when referring to God, capitalize the first letter 
of heaven and hell when referring to the abodes of the blessed 
and of the lost. But such is not the usage in the Bible, which 
is the most carefully printed book in the language. " If I 
ascend up into heaven, thou art there : if I make my bed in 
hell, behold, thou art there." 

Note 3. North, South, East, and West, when used to denote 
certain parts of the country or of the world, should begin 
with a capital; as, "This man evidently is a native of the 
West." But when they denote merely geographical direc- 
tion, they should begin with a small letter ; as, " Ohio lies 
west of the Alleghanies." 

Note 4. When a name is compounded of a proper noun 
and of some other word which is not a proper noun, con- 
nected by a hyphen, the part which is not a proper noun 
begins with a capital, if it precedes the hyphen, but with a 
small letter, if it follows the hyphen ; as, Pre- Adamite, New- 
England, Sunday-school. 

Rule 13. Words derived from Proper Names. — Words 
derived from proper names should begin with a capital; as, 
Mahometan, Brahmin, Christian, Roman; French, Spanish, 
Grecian; to Christianize, to Judaize, to Romanize. 

Note 1. The names of religious sects, whether derived from 



230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

proper names or otherwise, begin with a capital ; as, Christians, 
Pagans, Jews, Gentiles, Lutherans, Calvinists, Protestants, 
Catholics. The names of political parties likewise begin with 
capitals ; as, Democrats, Republicans, Radicals, Conservatives. 
Note 2. Some words, derived originally from proper names, 
have by long and familiar usage lost all reference to their 
origin, and are printed like ordinary words, without capitals ; 
as, simony, damask, jalap, godlike, philippic, to hector, to galvanize, 
to japan, etc. 

Rule 14. Titles of Honor and Office. — Titles of honor and 
office should begin with a capital ; as, The President of the 
United States, His Honor the Mayor of Philadelphia, Presi- 
dent Madison, Queen Victoria, Sir Robert Murchison, Your 
Royal Highness. 

Note. — The term father, when used to denote one of the 
early Christian writers, is always printed with a capital ; as, 
" Chrysostom and Augustine are among the most voluminous 
of the Fathers." 

Rule 15. Subjects first Introduced. — In works of a 
scientific character, when the subject of a particular section 
is defined, or is first introduced, it begins with a capital ; as, 
" A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun." 

Rule 16. The Bible.— A capital is always used for the 
terms ordinarily employed to designate the Bible, or any 
particular part or book of the Bible ; as, The Holy Bible, the 
Sacred Writings, the Old Testament, the Acts of the Apostles, 
the Revelation. In like manner, a capital is used in giving 
the names of other sacred writings, as the Koran, the Zend 
Avesta, the Puranas. 

Rule 17. "Words of Special Importance. — Words de- 
scribing the great events of history, or extraordinary things 
of any kind, which have acquired a distinctive name, begin 
with a capital ; as, the Reformation, the Revolution, the war 
of Independence, the Middle Ages, Magna Charta, the Gulf 
Stream. 

Rule 18. Personification. — In cases of strongly marked 
personification, the noun personified should begin with a 
capital; as, — 



PROSODY. 231 

" Hope for a season bade the world farewell, 
And Freedom shrieked as Kosciusko fell." * 

Miscellaneous Examples for Practice. 

[Punctuate the following sentences, and make the necessary 
corrections in regard to capitals, giving your reasons for each 
alteration.] 

1. Charles notwithstanding the delay had left england to 
work his way as best he might out of his Difficulties 

2. the scots therefore at the break of day entered the Castle 

3. Fashion is for the most part the ostentation of Riches 

4. besides if you labor in moderation it will conduce to 
Health as well as to Wealth 

5. Sir Peter Carew for some unknown reason had written 
to ask for his pardon 

6. The Man when He saw this departed 

7. Elizabeth who had been requested to attend was not 
present 

8. The frost had set in the low damp ground was hard the 
Dykes were frozen 

9. she thought the isle that gave her birth 
the sweetest mildest land on earth 

10. Give me a sanctified and just a charitable and humble a 
religious and contented spirit 

11. The ocelot a beautiful and striped fiend hisses like a 
snake 

12. Well St. Nicholas what news 

13. Zaccheus make haste and come down. 

14. The conspiracy being crushed without bloodshed an 
inquiry into its origin could be carried out at leisure 

15. Thus preciously freighted the Spanish fleet sailed from 
Corunna 

16. Cruel and savage as the Persecution had become it was 
still inadequate 

17. Faith is opposed to infidelity hope to despair charity to 
enmity and hostility 

* This rule, like that in regard to words of special importance, 
requires discretion on the part of the writer. Young and inexperienced 
writers are prone to apply it too frequently. 



232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

18. Elizabeth threw herself in front of Marie Antoinette 
exclaiming I am the queen 

19. Kant said give me matter and I will build the world 

20. Whatever happens Mary exclaims Elizabeth I am the 
wife of the Prince of Spain crown rank life all shall go before 
I will take any other husband 

21. In this way we learned that miss Steele never succeeded 
in catching the doctor that Kitty Bennett was satisfactorily 
married by a clergyman near Pemberton that the " consider- 
able sum " given by Mrs. Norris to William Price was one pound 
and that the letters placed by Churchill before Jane Fairfax 
which she swept away unread contained the word pardon 

22. Ars in Latin is the contrary of in-ers it is the contrar}^ of 
inaction it is action 

23. there are five moods the indicative the potential the 
subjunctive the imperative and the infinitive 

24. Princes have courtiers and merchants have partners the 
voluptuous have companions and the wicked have accomplices 
none but the virtuous have friends 

25. in his last Moments He uttered these words i fall a sac- 
rifice to sloth and luxury 

26. Bacon Francis usually known as Lord bacon was born 
in London England Jan 22 1560 and died 1626 he was famous 
as a scholar a wit a lawyer a judge a statesman a politician but 
chiefly as a philosopher 



-oO^O* 



FIGURES. 

A Figure in language is some deviation from the usual 
mode of speech with a view of making the language more 
effective. This deviation may be in the form of a word, and 
then it relates to Orthography and Etymology; it may be in 
its construction with the other words of a sentence, and then it 
relates to Syntax ; it may be in the meaning of a word, and 
then it relates to Rhetoric. 

I. FIGURES OF ORTHOGRAPHY AND ETYMOLOGY. 

A Figure of Orthography or Etymology is some deviation 
from the usual form of a word. The principal figures of this 



PROSODY. 233 

kind are eight; Aphxresis, Syncope, Apocope, Prosthesis, Paragoge, 
Synxresis, Bixresis, and Tmesis. 

Aphseresis takes away a letter or a syllable from the begin- 
ning of a word ; as, 'gan, for began. 

Syncope rejects a letter or syllable from the middle of a 
word; as, lov'd, for loved; e'er, for ever. 

Apocope cuts off a letter or syllable from the end ; as, th\ 
for the; yon, for yonder. 

Prosthesis prefixes a letter or syllable to the beginning of 
a word ; as, enchain, for chain; adown, for down. 

Paragoge adds a letter or syllable to the end ; as, awaken, 
for awake ; vasty, for vast. 

Synseresis is the contraction of two vowels or of two sylla- 
bles into one ; as, tvalkst, for walkest. Two words also are fre- 
quently contracted into one ; as, 'Tis, for it is; 'twas, for it was; 
we'll for we will. 

Diaeresis is the mark •• placed over the latter of two 
vowels to show that they are not to be sounded as a diph- 
thong; as in zoology. 

Tmesis separates a compound word by putting a word 
between; as, "To God ward," that is, " Toward God.' ' 



II. FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

A Figure of Syntax is some deviation from the ordinary 
construction of a word. The figures of this .kind are usually 
reckoned four; Ellipsis, Pleonasm, Enallage, and Hyper- 
baton. 

Ellipsis is the omission of words necessary to supply the 
regular or full construction ; as, " Reading makes a full man ; 
conversation [makes] a ready man ; and writing [makes] an 
exact man." 

Pleonasm is the use of superfluous words ; as, " I went 
home full of a great many serious reflections." Here the 
words a great many should be cancelled, as unnecessary. 

Enallage is the use of one part of speech for another ; as, 
" Slow rises merit, when by poverty depressed." 

Hyperbaton is the transposition of words ; as, " Come, 
nymph demure." It frequently imparts energy to a sentence, 
and is very common in poetry. 



234 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

III. FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

A Figure of Rhetoric is a deviation from the proper and 
literal meaning of a word or phrase. 

The following are the principal Figures of Rhetoric : Simile, 
Metaphor, Allegory, Personification, Antithesis, Metonymy, Synec- 
doche, Interrogation, Exclamation, Apostrophe, Hyperbole, Irony. 

Simile, Metaphor, Allegory, Personification, are founded 
upon resemblance. 

Metonymy, Synecdoche, Apostrophe, Hyperbole, Irony, are 
based upon association. 

A Simile is a formal comparison between two objects, ex- 
pressed by the words like or as. Thus, we can say of a horse, 
" He is as swift as the wind; " and of a man, " He is as firm as 
a rockP 

A Metaphor expresses a resemblance between two objects 
without the sign of comparison like or as; thus, "Thy word is 
a lamp to my feet, and a light to my path." A metaphor im- 
plies a comparison, and differs from a simile only in form, the 
sign of comparison being omitted. Thus, when I say, "A hero 
is like a lion," I use a simile; but when I say, " A hero is a 
lion." I employ a metaphor. 

An Allegory is a description of one thing under the image 
of another : it is a sort of continued metaphor. 

The following from the 80th Psalm is a beautiful allegory, in 
which the Jewish nation is represented under the symbol of a 
vine. " Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt ; thou hast cast 
out the heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room before 
it ; and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled the land. 
The hills were covered with the shadow of it ; and the boughs 
thereof were like the goodly cedars. It sent out its boughs 
into the sea and its branches into the river. Why hast thou 
broken down its hedges, so that all they who pass by the way 
do pluck it ? The boar out of the wood doth waste it, and the 
wild beast of the field doth devour it." 

Personification is that figure by which we attribute life 
and action to inanimate objects; as, "The thirsty ground," 
" The angry ocean," " The mountains saw Thee, O Lord, and 
they trembled. 11 

Metonymy (change of names) is not founded on resem- 



PROSODY. 235 

blance, but on some other relation, such as cause and effect, 
effect and cause, sign and thing signified, container and thing 
contained. Thus, 1. The cause for the effect, or the author for 
his works ; as, " I am reading Virgil; " that is, his works. 2. The 
effect for the cause; as, "Gray hairs should be respected;" 
that is, old age. 3. The container for the thing contained ; as, 
"The kettle boils," meaning the water. 4. The sign for the 
thing signified; as, "He assumes the sceptre;" that is, "He 
assumes the sovereignty." 

A Synecdoche is a figure by which the whole is put for a 
part or a part for the whole, a definite for an indefinite num- 
ber, etc.; as, "Man returns to the dust," meaning only his 
body, " He earns his bread" meaning all the necessaries of life. 

A Hyperbole is a figure that represents things as greater 
or less, better or worse, than they are in reality ; thus, David, 
speaking of Saul and Jonathan, says, " They were swifter than 
eagles, they were stronger than lions." "The waves ran moun- 
tains high." Hyperbole is an exaggeration of the truth. 

Apostrophe is a turning off from the subject of discourse, 
to address some other person or thing; as, " It advances, and 
with menacing aspect slides into the heart of the city, my 
country! ah! Ilium, the habitation of the gods!" Personifica- 
tion and apostrophe so nearly coincide, that they are fre- 
quently confounded. The former, however, consists in giv- 
ing life to inanimate objects, and the latter in abruptly ad- 
dressing objects thus animated, or persons that are dead or 
absent. 

Irony is a figure by which we express ourselves in a manner 
contrary to our thoughts, not with a view to deceive, but to 
add force to our observations. Thus, the prophet Elijah, in 
challenging the priests of Baal to prove the truth of their 
deity, ironically says, " Cry aloud, for he is a god; either he is 
talking, or he is pursuing, or he is on a journey, or peradven- 
ture he sleepeth. and must be awaked." 

Interrogation is a question put, not to get an answer, but 
to express our own opinions more strongly. Thus, " The Lord 
is not a man that he should lie, neither the son of man that he 
should repent. Hath he said it f and shall he not do it f Hath 
he spoken it, and shall he not make it good ? " 

Exclamation is used to express agitated feeling, admira- 



236 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tion, wonder, surprise, anger, joy, etc. ; thus, " the depth of 
the riches both of the wisdom and knowledge of God! " 

Antithesis consists in putting two unlike things in juxtapo- 
sition, that each will appear more striking by the contrast; as, 
" The prodigal robs his heir; the miser robs himself." 

In the following examples, name the figure of speech used, 
and explain it: 

Man, like the generous vine, supported lives. 

The Lord is my Shepherd. 

The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold. 

The sceptre shall not depart from Judah. 

The chair decided the motion out of order. 

In the preliminary contest, the crown was sustained. 

They drank one bottle of wine. 

He was invited to tea. 

Plate sin with gold, and the strong lance of justice, shivering 
breaks ; clothe it in rags, and a pigmy's straw doth pierce it. 

A sail passed in the distance. 

His gold could not save his life. 

The ploughman homeward plods his weary way. 

The sky saddens with the gathering storm. 

To obtain soldiers for the army, Spain rbbbed the cradle and 
the grave. 

Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke. 

The state was tottering to its fall. 

Have you read Shakspeare ? 

His thoughts were shallow. 

The pen is mightier than the sword. 

Twenty sail were counted in the bay. 

" The farmer sat in his easy chair, 
Smoking his pipe of clay/' 

No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom shall die 
with you. 

O Death ! where is thy sting? 
O Grave ! where is thy victory ? 

I will talk of things past or things to come. 
And Brutus was an honorable man. 



PROSODY. 237 

" She gathers up her robes of green and gold, 
The fair sweet summer; and across the land 
We see her go, with outward reaching hand." 

UTTERANCE. 

Utterance comprises the Articulation of Letters, the Pro- 
nunciation of Words, and the Delivery of Sentences. 

ARTICULATION. 

The proper articulation of letters can be acquired only by a 
thorough practice in all the sounds of all the letters. From a 
neglect of this practice arise such errors as mumbling, lisp- 
ing, slurring, hesitating, and stammering. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

The utterance of words taken separately depends largely on 
the sounds or powers of the letters composing the word, the 
place and power of the accent, and the quantity of the syllable. 

Accent is a stress of the voice, placed on a particular sylla- 
ble in a word, by which that syllable is distinguished from the 
rest; as, pre'fix, disturb'. 

The Quantity of the syllable is the time required to pro- 
nounce it. Quantity is either long or short. 

The quantity of a syllable is long when the accent is on the 
vowel ; as, gave, wise, make. The quantity of a syllable is 
short when the accent is on the consonant ; as, last, not, pin. 

THE DELIVERY OF SENTENCES.— ELOCUTION. 

The proper Deliver}' of a Sentence or Discourse is based 
upon a knowledge of Emphasis, Pause, Inflection, and Tone. 

Emphasis is a stress of voice laid upon a particular word, 
distinguishing it from the rest of the sentence. 

Pause is a measurable cessation of the voice during reading 
or speaking. Pauses are restful to the reader, and in connection 
with emphasis and inflection, they enable the hearer to grasp 
the thought and emotion of the discourse in its greatest extent. 

Inflection is that variation of the voice by which it passes 
from one key or pitch to another. 



238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

There are three inflections : the Rising, when the voice 
passes to a higher key ; the Falling, when it passes to a lower 
key ; and the Circumflex, when both are combined in the same 
word. 

Tone is that modulation of the voice by which we express 
our varying sentiments and emotions. 



-♦oj^oo- 



VERSIFICATION. 

Versification is the arrangement of words into poetical 
lines or verses. 

I. VERSES. 

A poetical line or verse consists of a certain number of 
accented and unaccented syllables, arranged according to fixed 
rules. It was originally called verse, from the Latin verto, I 
turn, because when we have finished one line, we turn back to 
commence another. 

A couplet consists of two .successive lines rhyming to- 
gether. 

A triplet consists of three successive lines rhyming to- 
gether. 

A stanza is a combination of several lines, varying in num- 
ber according to the poet's fancy, and constituting a regular 
division of a poem or song. The word verse, which strictly 
means only a single line, is often incorrectly used for stanza. 

Rhyme is, for the most part, the correspondence of the last 
sound of one line to the last sound of another. 

Blank verse is the name given to that species of poetry 
which is without rhyme. 

II. FEET. 

Feet are the smaller portions into which a line or verse is 
divided. They are called feet, because by their aid the voice 
steps along, as it were, through the verse in a measured pace. 

The syllables which mark this regular movement of the 
voice, should, in some manner, be distinguished from the 
others. This distinction was made among the ancient Romans, 
by dividing their syllables into long and short ; and the long 
syllables, being the more important, marked the movement. 



PROSODY. 239 

In English, syllables are, for this purpose, divided into accented 
and unaccented ; the accented syllables, which show the move- 
ment, are distinguished by the mark of a long syllable, and the 
unaccented by the mark of a short syllable. 

The feet ordinarily used in English poetry are four in num- 
ber ; two of two syllables, and two of three syllables. 

Feet of two syllables. 

1. An Iambus w ~ ; as, defend. 

2. A Trochee - w : as, noble\ 

Feet of three syllables. 

3. An Anapaest w w - ; as, intercede. 

4. A Dactyl w w ; as, virtuous. 

III. KINDS OF VERSE. 

The kind of verse to which any piece of poetry belongs de- 
pends upon the kind of foot by which it is chiefly formed. 
Hence it is styled Iambic, Trochaic, Anapxstic, or Dactylic verse, 
according as the prevailing foot is an Iambus, a Trochee, an 
Anapaest, or a Dactyl. 

Each of these kinds of verse is subdivided according to the 
number of feet or metres in a line. A line consisting of only 
one foot is called a Manometer ; of two feet, a Dimeter ; of three 
feet, a Trimeter ; of four feet, a Tetrameter ; of five feet, a Penta- 
meter ; of six feet, a Hexameter. There being thus six different 
lengths for each of the four kinds of verse, we have in all 
twenty-four varieties. These are exhibited in the following 
tables : 



1 . — Monometer, 
2. — Dimeter, 
3. — Trimeter, 
4. — Tetrameter, 
5. —Pentameter, 
6. — Hexameter, 



I. Iambic. 

awake | 

- -I - - I 
to me | the rose | 

in pla J ces far J and near J 
. _ |- . | M . i .. | 

and may | at last | m> r wea | ry age | 
. . | . . | - . |- - | - . | 
h<5w loved | how val | ued once 1 avails | thee not | 

- ■ I--I- - I - I « -J" - I 
thy realm | forev | er lasts | thy own | Messi | ah reigns | 



240 



1. — Monometer, 
2. — Dimeter, 
3. — Trimeter, 
4. — Tetrameter, 
5. — Pentameter, 
6. — Hexameter, 

1. — Monometer, 
2. — Dimeter, 
3. — Trimeter •, 
4. — Tetrameter, 
5 . — Pentameter, 

|w w - 

I on the warm 
6. — Hexameter, 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Trochaic. 

- -I 
mercy | 

- -I - -I 
on the | mountain | 

- - | - w I ... „ I 

when our ( hearts are | mourning | 

. w I -w I - . | . „ | 

lovely | Thais | sits be | side thee J 

-w I - .| - ~ I - w| - w| 

Satyrs | by the | brooklet | love to | dally | 

on a j mountain | stretched be | neath a J hoary | willow | 

3. Anapaestic. 

referee | 

dn the plain | as he strode | 

I would hide | with the beasts | of the chase | 

when repo | sing that night J on my pal | let of straw | 

w : -w. . | M . . |~ «- I-.* 

cheek of youth | the gay smile | and the rose | ever blend 



| btit the leaves | are begin j ning to with | er and droop | and they die | in a day | 

4. Dactylic. 



1.— Monometer, 
2. — Dimeter, 
3. — Trimeter, 
4. — Tetrameter, 
5. — Pentameter. 



merciful I 



take her tip | tenderly | 

weary and | worn she a j waited thee | 

. ■ w - I - o - | - - - I - - - I 

faded the | vapors that | seemed to en \ compass him | 

_ M . | . . M | . ~ ~ | :. v . w| . ^ | 

life hath its | pleasures but | fading are | they as the j floweret | 
6. — Hexameter, 

i . . „ i . . „ i - . . i . . : i . . « ~ i . r r i 

| over the | valley with | speed like the | wind all the | steeds were a | gallfiping | 




SELECTIONS 



FOR 



Analysis and Parsing. 



oo^O« — 

Directions. — Divide the given extracts into separate, complete propo- 
sitions, and name the kind of sentence each one constitutes. If the sen- 
tence is simple, name the subject, the predicate, and the modifiers of 
each. If the sentence is compound, name the separate members, and 
give the subject, predicate, and modifiers of each member. Give the 
connective. If the sentence is complex, name the principal proposi- 
tions and the dependent clause or clauses. Give the subject, predicate, 
and modifiers of each. State whether the clause is an adjectival, ad- 
verbial, or substantive modifier. Name the connectives. 

To paraphrase a poem or poetical extract, rewrite it in prose form, 
using other words, if necessary, for the purpose of making its meaning 
dearer. The proper grammatical position of the words should be 
observed. 

A WAKE ! for morning in the bowl of night 
-*--*- Has flung the stone that puts the stars to flight ; 
And lo ! the hunter of the east has caught 
The sultan's turret in a noose of light. 



■<K)^00- 



rpo do God's will that's all 
-*- That need concern us ; not to carp or ask 
The meaning of it ; but to ply our task 

Whatever may befall, 
Accepting good or ill as He shall send, 

And wait until the end. 

16 241 



242 SELECTIONS FOR 

"A /TEN are but children of a larger growth; 
-*-*-■- Our appetites as apt to change as theirs, 
And full as craving too, and full as vain ; 
And yet the soul shut up in her dark room, 
Viewing so clear abroad, at home sees nothing; 
But like a mole in earth, busy and blind, 
Works all her folly up, and casts it outward 
To the world's open view. 



rpHE clouds which rise with thunder slake 
-*- Our thirsty souls with rain ; 
The blow most dreaded falls to break 

From off our limbs a chain ; 
And wrongs of man to man but make 

The love of God more plain ; 
As, through the shadowy lens of even, 
The eye looks farthest into heaven, 
On gleams of star and depths of blue 
The glaring sunshine never knew. 



rpHESE our actors, 
-*- As I foretold you, were all spirits, and 
Are melted into air, into thin air ; 
And, like the baseless fabric of this vision, 
The cloud-capped towers, the gorgeous palaces. 
The solemn temples, the great globe itself, 
Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve, 
And like this insubstantial pageant faded, 
Leave not a rack behind. We are such stuff 
As dreams are made of, and our little life 
Is rounded with a sleep. 



■*o^o«- 



W 



HO can tell what a baby thinks ? 
Who can follow the gossamer links 



ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 243 

By which the mannikin feels his way 
Out from the shore of the great unknown, 
Blind and wailing and alone 

Into the light of day ? 
Out from the shore of the unknown sea, 
Tossing in pitiful agony ; 
Of the unknown sea that reels and rolls, 
Specked with the barks of little souls, — 
Barks that were launched on the other side, 
And slipped from Heaven on an ebbing tide ? 



-00>©<CH»- 



TTTE knew it would rain, for all the morn 
* * A spirit on slender ropes of mist 

Was lowering its golden buckets down 
Into the vapory amethyst 

Of marshes and swamps and dismal fens ; 

Scooping the dew that lay in the flowers, 
Dipping the jewels out of the sea, 

To scatter them over the land in showers. 

We knew it would rain, for the poplars showed 
The white of their leaves, and the amber grain 

Shrunk in the wind, — and the lightning now 
Is tangled in tremulous skeins of rain. 

»oJ«{w 

^\7"E whose hearts are fresh and simple, 
-*- Who have faith in God and Nature, 
Who believe, that in all ages 
Every human heart is human, 
That in even savage bosoms, 
There are longings, yearnings, strivings, 
For the good they comprehend not, 
That the feeble hands and helpless, 
Groping blindly in the darkness, 
Touch God's right hand in that darkness, 
And are lifted up and strengthened ; 
Listen to this simple story, 
To this Song of Hiawatha ! 



244 SELECTIONS FOR 

rp AKE joy home, 

-*- And make a place in thy great heart for her, 
And give her time to grow, and cherish her ; 
Then will she come and oft will sing to thee, 
When thou art working in the furrows ; ay, 
Or weeding in the sacred hour of dawn. 

It is a comely fashion to be glad ; 

Joy is the grace we say to God. 

There is a rest remaining. Hast thou sinned? 
There is a sacrifice. Lift up thy head : 
The lovely world and the over-world alike 
Ring with a song eterne, a happy rede : 
" Thy Father loves thee." 

TJpOR strength is born of struggle, faith of doubt, 
-■- Of discord law, and freedom of oppression : 
We hail from Pisgah, with exulting shout, 
The promised land below us, bright with sun, 
And deem its pastures won, 

Ere toil and blood have earned us the possession ! 
Each aspiration of our human earth 
Becomes an act through keenest pangs of birth; 
Each force, to bless, must cease to be a dream, 
And conquer life through agony supreme ; 
Each inborn right must outwardly be tested 

By stern material weapons, ere it stand 

In the enduring fabric of the land, 
Secured for those who yielded it, and those who wrested, 

rpHE quality of mercy is not strained — 
-*- It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven 
Upon the place beneath : it is twice blessed ; 
It blesseth him that gives and him that takes ; 
'Tis mightiest in the mightiest ; it becomes 
The throned monarch better than his crown. 
His sceptre shows the force of temporal power, 
The attribute to awe and majesty, 
Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings ; 



ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 245 

But mercy is above this sceptred sway, — 

It is enthroned in the hearts of kings ; 

It is an attribute to God himself; 

And earthly power doth then show likest God's, 

When mercy seasons justice. 

^o^^oo 



"TTTHEN I consider how my light is spent 

* * Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide, 
And that one talent which is death to hide, 
Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent 
To serve therewith my Maker, and present 
My true account, lest He, returning, chide ; 
" Doth God exact day labor, light denied ? " 
I fondly ask ; but Patience, to prevent 
That murmur, soon replies, — " God doth not need 
Either's man's work, or His own gifts ; who best 
Bear His mild yoke, they serve Him best; His state 
Is kingly ; thousands at His bidding speed, 
And post o'er land and ocean without rest ; 
They, also, serve w T ho only stand and wait." 



-OOJ^OO- 



O AIL ON, sail on, thou ship of state, 
^ Sail on, O Union, strong and great. 
Humanity with all its fears, 
Is hanging breathless on thy fate. 
We know what Master laid thy keel, 
What workmen wrought thy ribs of steel ; 
Who made each mast and sail and rope, 
What anvils rang, what hammers beat. 
Fear not each sudden sound and shock, 
'Tis of the wave and not the rock. 
'Tis but the flapping of the sail, 
'Tis but a rent made by the gale. 
In spite of rock and tempest's roar, 
In spite of false lights on the shore ; 
Sail on, nor fear to breast the sea ! 
Our hearts, our hopes are all with thee. 



246 SELECTIONS FOB 

"DREATHES there a man with soul so dead, 
■*-* Who never to himself hath said, 

This is my own, my native land ! 
Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned, 
As home his footsteps he hath turned 

From wandering on a foreign strand ! 
If such there breathe, go mark him well ; 
For him no minstrel raptures swell ; 
High though his titles, proud his name, 
Boundless his wealth, as wish can claim ; 
Despite those titles, power, and pelf, 
The wretch, concentred all in self, 
Living, shall forfeit fair renown, 
And, doubly dying, shall go down 
To the vile dust from whence he sprung, 
Unwept, unhonored, and unsung. 



-oO^O«- 



GO you fell just now in the mud, poor heart ! 
^ And to try to rise and be clean is vain ? 
Take both my hands, now, and do your part, 

So you stand on your feet again. 
Did nobody tell you your feet might slip ? 

Did some one push you? Such things are done. 
Was your path so rough that you needs must trip ? 

Ah ! the blame is on many — not on one. 
Sobbing still over that ugly stain ? 

I may not comfort or hush you, dear, 
Through such sad tears in their burning rain 

Christ and his cross show clear. 
Must you go sorrowing all your day ? 

Dear, in suffering, souls grow white ; 
Keep my hand through the stony way — 

See where the west turns bright, 



nnHE snow had begun in the gloaming, 
-*- And busily all the night 
Had been heaping field and highway 
With a silence deep and white. 



ANALYSIS AND PARSING. t 247 

Every pine and fir and hemlock 

Wore ermine too dear for an earl, 
And the poorest twig on the elm-tree 

Was ridged inch deep with pearl. 

From sheds new-roofed with Carrara 

Came Chanticleer's muffled crow, 
The stiff rails were softened to swan's-down, 

And still fluttered down the snow. 

I stood and watched by the window 

The noiseless work of the sky, 
And the sudden flurries of snow-birds, 

Like brown leaves whirling by. 



>XKo*. 



T MOURN no more my vanished years : 
-*- Beneath a tender rain, 
An April rain of smiles and tears, 
My heart is young again. 

The airs of spring may never play 

Among the ripening corn, 
Nor freshness of the flowers of May 

Blow through the autumn morn ; 

Yet shall the blue-eyed gentian look 
Through fringed lids to heaven, 

And the pale aster, in the brook 
Shall see its image given ; 

The woods shall wear their robes of praise, 

The south-wind softly sigh, 
And sweet, calm days in golden haze 

Melt down the amber sky. 

»o^oc 

T IKE a blind spinner in the sun, 

-*-^ I tread my days ; 

I know that all the threads will run 

Appointed ways ; 
I know each day will bring its task, 
And, being blind, no more I ask. 



248 SELECTIONS FOB 

I do not know the use or name 

Of that I spin ; 
I only know that some one came 

And laid within 
My hand the thread, and said : " Since you 
Are blind, but one thing you can do." 

Sometimes the threads so rough and fast 

And tangled fly, 
I know wild storms are sweeping past, 

And fear that I 
Shall fall ; but dare not try to find 
A safer place, since I am blind. 



-«k>XKo©- 



/^vUT of the bosom of the air, 
^-^ Out of the cloud-folds of her garments shaken, 
Over the woodlands brown and bare, 
Over the harvest-fields forsaken, 

Silent and soft and slow 

Descends the snow. 

Even as our cloudy fancies take 

Suddenly shape in some divine expression, 
Even as the troubled heart doth make 
In the white countenance confession, 
The troubled sky reveals 
The grief it feels. 

This is the poem of the air, 

Slowly in silent syllables recorded ! 
This is the secret of despair, 

Long in its cloudy bosom hoarded, 
Now whispered and revealed, 
To wood and field. 



^o*X< 



A BOU BEN ADHEM— may his tribe increase !— 
-^-^- Awoke one night from a deep dream of peace, 
And saw, within the moonlight in his room, 
Making it rich and like a lily in bloom, 
An angel writing in a book of gold. 



ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 249 

Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold, 
And to the presence in the room he said, 
" What writest thou ? " The vision raised its head, 
And with a voice made all of sweet accord, 
Answered, " The names of those who love the Lord." 

" And is mine one ?" said Abou. " Nay, not so," 
Replied the angel. Abou spoke more low, 
But cheerily still, and said, " I pray thee, then, 
Write me as one who loves his fellow-men." 

The angel wrote and vanished. The next night 
It came again with a great wakening light, 
And showed the names whom love of God had blessed 
And lo ! Ben Adhem 's name led all the rest. 



■OO^OO- 



"TTTHAT constitutes a state ? 

* * Not high-raised battlement or labored mound, 

Thick wall or moated gate, 
Nor cities proud with spires and turrets crowned; 

Not bays and broad-armed posts, 
Where, laughing at the storm, rich navies ride ; 

Not starred and spangled courts, 
Where low-browed baseness wafts perfume to pride. 

No : men, high-minded men, 
With powers as far above dull brutes endued 

In forest, brake, or den, 
As beasts excel cold rocks and brambles rude ; 

Men who their duties know, 
But know their rights, and knowing, dare maintain, 

Prevent the long-aimed blow, 
And crush the tyrant while they rend the chain : 

These constitute a state, 
And sovereign Law, that state's collected will, 

O'er thrones and globes elate 
Sits empress, crowning good, repressing ill ; 

Smit by her sacred frown, 
The fiend Discretion like a vapor sinks, 

And e'en the all-dazzling Crown 
Hides his faint rays, and at her bidding shrinks. 



250 SELECTIONS FOR 

Lincoln's Address at Gettysburg. 

t I THE world will little note, nor long remember, what we 
-*- say here, but it can never forget what they did here. 
It is for us, the living, rather to be dedicated here to the un- 
finished work which they who fought here have thus far so 
nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to 
the great task remaining before us, that from these honored 
dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they 
gave the last full measure of devotion; that we here highly 
resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain ; that this 
nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that 
government of the people, by the people, and for the people, 
shall not perish from the earth. 



-©O^OO- 



The Declaration of Independence. 

TT will be " acted o'er," fellow-citizens, but it can never be 
-*- repeated. It stands, and must forever stand, alone ; a 
beacon on the summit of the mountain, to which all the in- 
habitants of the earth may turn eyes, for a genial and saving 
light, till time shall be lost in eternity, and this globe itself 
dissolve, nor leave a wreck behind. It stands forever, a light 
of admonition to the rulers of men, a light of salvation and 
redemption to the oppressed. So long as this planet shall be 
inhabited by human beings, so long as man shall be of a social 
nature, so long as government shall be necessary to the great 
moral purposes of society, so long as it shall be abused to the 
purposes of oppression — so long shall this Declaration hold 
out, to the sovereign and to the subject, the extent and 
the boundaries of their respective rights and duties, founded 
in the laws of nature and of nature's God. 

John Quincy Adams. 

•ojOSoo 



ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 251 

A New Year's Resolve. 

A S the dead year is clasped by a dead December, 
-^-*- So let your dead sins with your dead days lie. 
A new life is yours, and a new hope ! Remember 

We build our ladders to climb to the sky. 
Stand out in the promise of sunlight, forgetting 

Whatever your past held of sorrow or wrong ; 
We waste half our strength in a useless regretting, 

We sit by old tombs in the dark too long. 

Have you missed in your aim ? Well, the mark is still shining ; 

Did you faint in the race ? Well, take breath for the next ; 
Did the clouds drive you back ? But, see yonder their lining ; 

Were you tempted and fell ? Let it serve for a text. 
As each year hurries by let it join that procession 

Of skeleton shapes that march down to the past. 
While you take your place in the line of progression 

With your eyes on the heavens, your face to the blast. 

I tell you the future can hold no terrors 

For any sad soul while the stars revolve, 
If he will but stand firm on the grave of his errors, 

And instead of regretting, resolve, resolve ! 
It is never too late to begin rebuilding, 

Though all into ruins your life seems hurled. 
For look ! how the light of the New Year is gilding, 

The worn, wan face of the bruised old world ! 

Ella Wlieeler Wilcox. 

»0»>OC 

Lines on a Skeleton. 

T)EHOLD this ruin ! 'Twas a skull 
-*-* Once of ethereal spirit full. 
This narrow cell was Life's retreat, 
This space was Thought's mysterious seat. 
What beauteous visions filled this spot! 
What dreams of pleasure long forgot ! 
Nor Hope, nor Joy, nor Love, m nor Fear, 
Have left one trace of record here. 



252 SELECTIONS FOE , 

Beneath this mouldering canopy, 

Once shone the bright and busy eye; 

But start not at the dismal void — 

If social love that eye employed, 

If with no lawless fire it gleamed, . 

But through the dews of kindness beamed, 

That eye shall be forever bright 

When stars and sun are sunk in night. 

Within this hollow cavern hung 

The ready, swift, and tuneful tongue. 

If falsehood's honey it disdained, 

And when it could not praise, was chained, 

If bold in Virtue's cause it spoke, 

Yet gentle concord never broke ! 

This silent tongue shall plead for thee 

When time unveils Eternity. 



The American Flag. 

~TT7"HEN Freedom, from her mountain height, 
* * Unfurled her standard to the air, 

She tore the azure robe of night, 
And set the stars of glory there. 

She mingled with its gorgeous dyes 

The milky baldric of the skies, 

And striped its pure, celestial white, 

With streakings of the morning light; 

Then, from his mansion in the sun, 

She called her eagle bearer down, 

And gave into his mighty hand 

The symbol of her chosen land. 

Majestic monarch of the cloud, 
Who rear'st aloft thy regal form. 
To hear the tempest trumpings loud 
And see the lightning lances driven, 
When strive the warriors of the storm, 



ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 253 

And rolls the thunder-drum of heaven, 
Child of the sun ! to thee 'tis given 

To guard the banner of the free, 
To hover in the sulphur smoke, 
To ward away the battle-stroke, 
And bid its blendings shine afar, 
Like rainbows on the cloud of war, 

The harbingers of victory ! 

J. Rodman Drake. 



-»oX*:< 



" Down to Sleep." 

n^TOVEMBER woods are bare and still ; 
-*"^ November days are clear and bright ; 
Each noon burns up the morning's chill ; 
The morning's snow is gone by night ; 
Each day my steps grow slow, grow light, 
As through the woods I reverent creep, 
Watching all things lie " down to sleep." 

I never knew before what beds, 
Fragrant to smell, and soft to touch, 
The forest sifts and shapes and spreads ; 
I never knew before how much 
Of human sound there is in such 
Low tones as through the forests sweep 
When all wild things lie " down to sleep." 

Each day I find new coverlids 
Tucked in, and more sweet eyes shut tight 
Sometimes the viewless mother bids 
Her ferns kneel down, full in my sight ; 
I hear their chorus of " good night ; " 
And half I smile, and half I weep, 
Listening while they lie " down to sleep." 

November woods are bare and still ; 
November days are bright and good ; 



254 SELECTIONS FOB 

Life's noon burns up life's morning chill ; 
Life's night rests feet which long have stood ; 
Some warm, soft bed, in field or wood, 
The mother will not fail to keep 
Where we can " lay us down to sleep." 

Helen Hunt Jackson. 



In School Days. 

OTILL sits the school-house by the road, 
^ A ragged beggar sunning; 
Around it still the sumachs grow, 
And blackberry vines are running. 

Within, the master's desk is seen, 

Deep scarred by raps official; 
The warping floor, the battered seats, 

The jack-knife's carved initial — 

The charcoal frescoes on its walls, 

Its door's worn sill, betraying 
The feet that, creeping slow to school, 

Went storming out to playing ! 

Long years ago a winter's sun 

Shone over it at setting ; 
Lit up its western window-panes, 

And low eaves' icy fretting. 

It touched the tangled golden curls, 
And brown eyes full of grieving, 

Of one who still her steps delayed 
When all the school were leaving. 

For near her stood the little boy 

Her childish favor singled, 
His cap pulled low upon a face 

Where pride and shame were mingled. 



ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 255 

Pushing with restless feet the snow 

To right and left he lingered, 
As restlessly her tiny hands 

The blue-checked apron fingered. 

He saw her lift her eyes; he felt 

The soft hands light caressing, 
And heard the trembling of her voice, 

As if a fault confessing. 

"I'm sorry that I spelt the word; 
I hate to go above you, 
Because" — the brown eyes lower fell — 
" Because, you see, I love you ! " 

Whittier. 



Love of Country and of Home. 

rpHERE is a land, of every land the pride, 
-*- Beloved by heaven o'er all the world beside, 
Where brighter suns dispense serener light, 
And milder moons imparadise the night — 
A land of beauty, virtue, valor, truth, 
Time-tutored age, and love-exalted youth. 
The wandering mariner, whose eye explores 
The wealthiest isles, the most enchanting shores, 
Views not a realm so beautiful and fair, 
Nor breathes the spirit of a purer air ; 
In every clime, the magnet of his soul, 
Touched by remembrance, trembles to that pole ; 
For, in this land of heaven's peculiar grace, 
The heritage of nature's noblest race, 
There is a spot of earth supremely blest, 
A dearer, sweeter spot than all the rest, 
Where man, creation's tyrant, casts aside 
His sword and sceptre, pageantry and pride, 
While in his softened looks benignly blend 
The sire, the son, the husband, brother, friend. 
Here woman reigns ; the mother, daughter, wife, 
Strews with fresh flowers the narrow way of life ; 



256 SELECTIONS FOB ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

In the clear heaven of her delightful eye, 
An angel-guard of loves and graces lie ; 
Around her knees domestic duties meet, 
And fireside pleasures gambol at her feet. 
" Where shall that land, that spot of earth be found ? " 
Art thou a man, a patriot? look around ; 
Oh ! thou shalt find, howe'er thy footsteps roam, 
That land thy country, and that spot thy home. 

James Montgomery. 



■*oXK< 



Paul Revere's Ride. 

"VOU know the rest. In the books you have read 

How the British regulars fired and fled, — 
How the farmers gave them ball for ball, 
From behind each fence and farm-yard wall, 
Chasing the red-coats down the lane, 
Then crossing the fields to emerge again 
Under the trees at the turn of the road, 
And only pausing to fire and load. 

So through the night rode Paul Revere ; 

And so through the night went his cry of alarm 

To every Middlesex village and farm, — 

A cry of defiance, and not of fear, — 

A voice in the darkness, a knock at the door, 

And a word that shall echo forevermore ! 

For, borne on the night-wind of the Past, 

Through all our history to the last, 

In the hour of darkness and peril and need, 

The people will waken and listen to hear 

The hurrying hoof-beat of that steed, 

And the midnight-message of Paul Revere. 

The End. 



Jan - 30 1.9CH 




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